Background: Real-world optimization problems often contain parameters that are unknown at solving time. For example, in delivery problems, these parameters may be travel times or customer demands. A common strategy in such scenarios is to first predict the parameter values from contextual features using a machine learning model, and then solve the resulting optimization problem. To train the machine learning model, two paradigms can be distinguished. In prediction-focused learning, the model is trained to maximize predictive accuracy. However, this can lead to suboptimal decision-making, because it does not account for how prediction errors affect the quality of the downstream decisions. To address this, decision-focused learning (DFL) minimizes a task loss that captures how the predictions affect decision quality.

Objectives: One challenge in DFL is that the task loss has zero-valued gradients when the optimization problem is combinatorial, which hinders gradient-based training. For this reason, state-of-the-art DFL methods use surrogate losses and problem smoothing. However, these methods make specific assumptions about the problem structure (e.g., linear or convex problems with unknown parameters occurring only in the objective function). The goal of our work is to overcome these limitations and extend the applicability of DFL.

Method: We propose an alternative DFL approach that makes only minimal assumptions by combining stochastic smoothing with score function gradient estimation. This makes the approach broadly applicable, including to problems with nonlinear objectives, uncertainty in the constraints, and two-stage stochastic optimization problems.

Results: Our experiments show that our method matches or outperforms specialized methods for the problems they are designed for, while also extending to settings where no existing method is applicable. In addition, our method always outperforms models trained with prediction-focused learning.

Conclusions: In this work we demonstrate that by combining stochastic smoothing and score function gradient estimation to estimate the gradients of a smoothed loss, we can train a machine learning model in a DFL fashion without assuming any structural property of the optimization problem. This approach extends the applicability of DFL to a wider range of optimization problems, including those with uncertainty in the constraints. At the same time, it achieves performance that is competitive with or superior to existing DFL methods when they are applicable.

Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research

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