Classical Wisdom Weekly

Victor Davis Hanson Interview: Is There an Ancient Cancel Culture?

Wed, 13 Jan 2021 08:25:36 GMT

You can read the transcript below: Anya Leonard 0:08 Hello, this is Anya Leonard, founder and director of Classical Wisdom. You are listening to Classical Wisdom Speaks, a podcast dedicated to bringing ancient wisdom to modern minds. Today I'm speaking with Victor Davis Hanson, an American classicist, military historian, columnist and farmer. He is Professor Emeritus of Classics at California State University, Ille Anderson Senior Fellow in Classics and Military History at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, as well as the visiting professor at Hillsdale College. He's a regular writer at the National Review and author of many books, including his most recent, "The Case for Trump". Today we discuss whether the American president is a Greek hero, what are the ancient parallels to cancel culture and monument removals as well as value of ancient history. But before we begin, a quick thank you to our Classical Wisdom Society members who make this podcast possible. If you would like to become a society member and help support the classics, please go to http://classicalwisdom.com and click Start Here. Thank you so much for taking your time to speak with me today. I very much appreciate it. I just wanted to say that here at Classical Wisdom, one of the things we sort of strive to do is to show how the classics are still really relevant today and how they can be an important source of wisdom in our modern world. This works for learning lessons from ancient examples, but also with regards to approaching difficulties and especially controversial issues. So I often like telling people the stoics are very helpful for being able to hear different opinions and not necessarily be offended, but to think rationally. As well as the skeptics, you know, suspend judgment when hearing different views so that you can actually hear them. So these are some of the ways in which I find that the ancient world can be helpful in dealing with our very modern notions. And so as yourself a classicist, I know you also have a lot of opinions on current events. And so I would like to hear from you what do you think of the modern notions of cancel culture or being woke or collective guilt? And do they have comparable ancient examples? And what can we learn from those? Victor Davis Hanson 2:41 Now just to preface that comment by saying that most things in the ancient world have parallels in the modern, or at least the modern world, if it looks at the renaissance or the enlightenment or the middle or dark ages. There's echoes of the ancient world and prior to the ancient world not so much. So it's a friend, it's a crutch. It's an aid to go to make sure that you're not crazy or you're not alone and that you've seen it all before. So if you take canceled culture or statue toppling, we have iconoclasm that starts in the eastern Empire and lasts for about 300 years during the Byzantine period. Statue toppling was a little bit more economical because there was a standard body set type and you could decapitate a Roman emperor's head and substitute another one. We haven't done that yet, but we may get there. So there was Damnatio Memoriae, and that was that we trotskyized people's names so that they were no longer mentioned, or their relatives no longer existed. In ancient Athens, depending on the year, little over 6000 votes were required to ostracize someone. That was important because it was similar to canceled culture. There was no need in a court of law or in a dispassionate, disinterested fashion to prove real culpability. It was basically a mob reaction to unpopularity. Almost everybody who was significant in ancient Athens at one time or another was ostracized. So we have all of those ideas of hate, of shaming. The ancient world was not a modern guilt culture. And that is that there wasn't a notion of private transgression between you and your God in the Christian sense. And that's where we are now, because we're largely in the West either an atheistic or agnostic society. And we don't really see private sin as something that imperils our mortal soul. And there's something for us to look for guidance in religious scriptures and things to address. Rather it's a ‘shame culture’ where we try to enforce public morality by making fun of people or attacking the way they think or ostracizing people around them or making it hard for their employer to hire them. When you look at the forensic speeches of Demosthenes, Aeschines, and a lot of Lysias Isias inheritance cases, there's an effort to create a picture of an opponent that he's just in every aspect of manner is not to be liked and not to be associated with. Demosthenes doesn't like Aeschines. Besides policy differences, you've got to know that maybe Aeschines' mother committed prostitution in a public bathroom or something. And it's that type of cancel culture that's very similar to the ancient world, at least at times. We also have the mob, in the third book of Thucydides' History, has that chilling exegesis of the revolution of Corcyra where words change their names and reality is not what we've seen. And the keyword there is the blunter wits win. And by that he means those who just saw what was at stake, they understood violence was the answer. They went out and decapitated their enemies. They didn't think twice about it, didn't try to over rationalize, and they were successful, sort of like Hitler's brown shirts, with a Nazi move. They were the blunter wits from the underclasses and they were used to thuggery. And I think, in today's Western protest, there's a sense that you don't really have to justify whether Robert E. Lee is any different than James T Longstreet; they both are Confederate. Or maybe Frederick Douglass, he's not up to your current standards of wokeness. You just go out and do it. And you do it because you want to do it. You say to people, "what are you going to do about it?" And Thucydides saw that as a very dangerous development in society, that the blunter wits will prevail. [caption id="attachment_25745" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Thucydides Mosaic from Jerash, Jordan (Roman, 3rd century CE) at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.[/caption] Anya Leonard 7:13 And so if you have the knowledge of these ancient events, does that help shape a response or a view? I mean, you know, they say those who don't know history are doomed to repeat it, but those who know history are doomed to watch others repeat it. Is there anything you can do with that kind of knowledge? Victor Davis Hanson 7:35 Well, you could be careful because everybody left and everybody right thinks that they have the only insight into the true lessons of history and their views or exegesis is conditioned by their modern proclivities. But that being said, there is a universal and that is that you're not alone, that you don't wake up in the morning and think you're the most important person. That in 2020 as a whole, this has never happened before, whether it's the ancient world or the French Revolution, you can see parallels and you can see how people on both sides dealt with them. And you can predict what's going to happen. So of course, Corcyra or in the revolution of 411 and Athens or the career of Theramenes, or you can see what Xenophon talks about in the first and second book of his History, you can see what happens in these revolutionary cycles. Eventually, they all, and the 30 tyrants are the same thing, as we know from Xenophon as well. They start to peter out because the logical, rational trajectory is that nobody is ever going to be able to satisfy their claims on revolutionary purity and authenticity and genuineness. And so they start, whether it's Robespierre or the 30. They start turning on their own. And they say, well, yesterday's revolutionary is today's Revolutionary. We're seeing that in the contemporary field in some sense, that today as we're speaking a prominent moderate voice at the New York Times, Bari Weiss just resigned and said there's no place for her because she's been canceled out. And we're starting to see 150 liberal writers, artists, celebrities of sorts, write to Harper's and say, "This is not sustainable, because now they're going after us." And that's sort of reminiscent of the reign of terror between 1793 and 1794 when the Jacobins finally devoured Jacobins and they put an end to it. So things like that, those trends that are not so controversial, I think are very helpful. Anya Leonard 9:41 And you mentioned before the Damnatio memoriae during the Roman time period, you know, that was a very common thing to do, say, topple Caligula, or one of those guys who you know had just been murdering your family. And when I think of a modern parallel to that, tearing down the statues of Stalin or Saddam, you know, again very recent trauma in your life. But would you have had any ancient examples of people tearing down statues referring to incidences that had happened hundreds of years beforehand rather than just the most recent tyrant? Victor Davis Hanson 10:18 No, I mean, I, I think you could argue that when there were destructions, deliberate destructions of icons, it was more a them-us foreign-domestic, Persians coming in after Thermopylae, for example, and destroying sanctuaries or shrines in Boeotia or after the Persian war. The Greeks came together and argued whether they should or should not rebuild the temples and statuary that the Persians had destroyed. There wasn't top offs in ancient literature that when certain thugs were short of money, especially in the post-classical period and in the fourth-century onward bc, they would raid Delphi and strip off precious metals from some of the statues, but it was always more careerist, more fiscal, more monetary than it was ideological. And I think we in the United States have had periods of this, the Salem witch trials, the McCarthy period, but we've never, that I remember, and I'm speaking as someone 66, we've never had people go after statues with so little rationale. I mean, it started with anybody that had a confederate uniform and any statue, bronze, or stone that was put up in the south had to come down or even the North. And then as I said it went to anybody who seemed to be not of this century, a Teddy Roosevelt or Ulysses S Grant, so we very quickly got away from the idea that Confederate racist mediocrities are what we're going to focus on and that will somehow make us feel better and solve social problems if we destroy that iconographic expression. We didn't stay there long, we metamorphosed into almost anything of the farthest era, as I said, it can be Teddy Roosevelt, it can be Ulysses S. It can be Frederick Douglass, it can be black civil war veterans because it's a puritanical expression that you have to be good, you have to be perfect. And this pampered generation that has more leisure and affluence and technological appurtenances than any generation in history really does believe, like Hesiod's warning that with technological or material progress comes ethical progress. Whereas the Greeks, I think, you could argue, there's a long strain in Homer from the windy lectures by Nestor or Hesiod, especially that with material progress comes a danger of ethical regress. That people have to keep busy, they have to keep working and when they're idle and wealthy, and there is an anti-aristocratic and anti plutocratic flavor in Greek literature for that reason. Anya Leonard 13:25 And so speaking of ethics and good morals, you've written before about heroes, specifically, in your book the "Case for Trump" and when you liken the president to a hero, but with the very important caveat of what an ancient Greek hero is, which is quite a bit different than I think what most people think heroes are like. Do you still feel this is the case today and maybe more importantly, are Greek heroes something that we want in our modern world, are they something to look up to? Victor Davis Hanson 14:01 Well, there was an important adjective that I added in that book. And that was tragic heroes. I mean, we have epic heroes. We have heroes, we have tragic heroes. Usually, a tragic hero in the locus classicus, the seven extant plays of Sophocles: Ajax, Philoctetes, Antigone, Oedipus, is that they have a flawed, they have something that's a hamartia sin, and that is revealed in times of stress or disruption or crisis, and it seems to consume them. [caption id="attachment_26502" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Ajax battling Hector, engraving by John Flaxman, 1795[/caption] And even though they can be of great value, because they're outliers, they're not part of society. The methodology which they use to solve a crisis is also the one that makes them unfit. So we know that Antigone was the only one who has the courage to bury her brother, but she does so in such an off-putting manner there's really no place for her because she solves the problem and shows that women should not be judged by their gender, but by their personalities and their innate essence. But by proving that she's also not going to be comfortable either on her own part or by society's part. Same as Ajax. By all accounts, Ajax was the better warrior than Odysseus. He was blunt, he was simple, black and white Manichean view of the world and yet he doesn't get the armor of Achilles, and he rails and he's angry. And there's no place for a guy like that in a modern polis society. I could go on but that was very influential in the American Western. And I pointed that out in the book that John Ford, as well as others, if you look in the 1950s coming out of the post-war era, there was a series of movies, "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" with John Wayne, "The Searchers'' with John Wayne, "The Magnificent Seven," a John Sturges' movie with Yul Brynner and "Shane" was probably the most iconic with Gary Cooper. And then the plots are all the same, the so-called townspeople of the polis, in other words, the city-state, is at an impasse. Whether it's a Mexican village, or it's Hadleyville or it's an effort to find a missing girl that's been kidnapped, and they need somebody who is not of them. In other words, they're willing to do things and say things that reflect the way it really is without convention, without mannerism. And they're very successful. Shane will take out all of the cattle barons that need to be taken out. But the very methodology in which they employ makes them tragic. Because even though they created civilization or restored civilization, they're not of civilization, and that's tragic because they get no credit. And what I was trying to point out about Trump is he seems to always complain. He'll say, "well, I got the economy. They say I'm racist, but I've got the lowest black and Latino unemployment in history. We've got the most energy production natural gas, the United States. We're no longer dependent on Mideast oil. I was tougher on Russia than anybody in the Obama administration." He goes and rails and rails and rails of the injustice of all that not getting credit. And what he doesn't realize is that 46% of the country elected him not to give him credit. But because he was an outsider with certain skill sets to come in and deal with the Chinese mercantilism, unfair trade, and the hollowing out of the industrial interior, non-enforcement of immigration law, so-called optional wars in the Middle East in a strategic sense didn't in a cost-benefit analysis instead of pencil out. And once he did that, then he wouldn't be either necessarily thanked or acknowledged, but he would have got them done because he was not part of the system. So the Republican establishment, the pundit class, hated him as much as the left did. And so I don't think he understood that he was in a tragic role and tragic doesn't mean bad or good. It just means that you've created the very conditions under which you're going to benefit somebody else, but not yourself. And you're going to be angry over that unchangeable, unalterable fact. Anya Leonard 18:32 So does that mean he's fated to end up like Antigone or Ajax? Victor Davis Hanson 18:36 Yes, I think he is. I mean, he was on TV this morning, and he didn't look very well. 74 years old, he's too heavy. He's stressed out. He's down in the polls, I think he's still probably will win. But I think that whether he's out of the presidency in 2021 or 25, I don't think he's gonna be invited to funerals with other presidents. I don't think NPR is going to have him on to josh around with George W. Bush and Barack Obama. I don't think when you get your annual ratings of presidents' evaluations by our eminent academic historians, I don't think he's going to be rated in the way that they might have rated other people that had a particular effect on GDP or unemployment or energy production or foreign affairs. That's just not going to happen. Anya Leonard 19:34 It's interesting though, because it's always cyclical. I mean, I don't live in America and I haven't lived in America for a very long time. So I try, not to feel grandiose in any regard, but I always feel like Thucydides sometimes because you know, I'm always on the outside looking in and when you're not in it, you don't feel it the same way then when you're looking outwards. And it seems like you know, people complain so much about George W. Bush now Oh, he's fine. He's kind of a lovable character. It's amazing. You think of every Roman Emperor, they always think this one's really the worst at the time. But then with time they think actually, that one wasn't so bad. Victor Davis Hanson 20:13 That's right out of what Suetonius said always starts the same. If you read with Suetonius with an uncritical eye, then you say, well, wow, Caligula was horrible, and Claudius was a dunce. And then Nero was horrible. And then we have the four emperors and then, but when you read it more critically, you can see that a lot of the criticism is of the person in office at the time. There's sort of a trope, a Suetonian trope in America that because the universities, the foundations, the entertainment industry, and especially the media tend to be left of center, they look at a republican president as a threat, an existential threat to their whole progressive agenda. So when George H W Bush got elected in 88, with the help of Lee Atwater, who ran a, what I would call a pretty tough campaign analogous to what James Carville would do four years later with Bill Clinton, then he was horrible. He ran a tank commercial against Dukakis. He had a Willie Horton commercial. He was a wimp. You know, it was just a terrible guy. Then he was out. And we had the Clinton years. And then we had George W. Bush. And after his initial popularity after 911, waned, and we got into the acrimonious years of the Iraq war, and Why couldn't it be more like a statesman, like his centrist father? The aristocrat bluestock we didn't really like him, but he was a sobering, judicious father figure. Instead, he was a Texas twangy Exron he was horrible. He was a Nazi browning, Al Gore said he was a brown shirt, John Glenn said he's Nazi-like. We had the whole Cindy Sheehan, Michael Moore and we went through the Nazi thing. There were op-eds, I think in The Guardian, correct me if I'm wrong, said, Where's John Wilkes Booth when we need him? Pretty tough stuff. Then he's gone. Now we have Donald Trump and lo and behold George W. Bush was a sober and judicious president. And we did the same thing with Reagan. They hated Reagan, they said you Reagan is the most polarizing person. And now Reagan is the godfather of bipartisanship. And I don't know if that'll happen with Trump. It depends on who replaces him. If we go back to the Marquess of Queensbury rules republicans then yeah, he will not be rehabilitated. But if we get a populist nationalist in the Trump tradition, who is successful, and at some point the left will say, you know, why couldn't he be more like Donald Trump? Donald Trump was not that bad. Anya Leonard 22:57 Yeah, we only see these things with hindsight. Thank you for listening to Classical Wisdom Speaks a podcast dedicated to bringing ancient wisdom to modern minds. Society members can listen to the entire podcast on classical wisdom. Transcribed by https://otter.ai

Is Karma REAL?

Mon, 11 Jan 2021 17:02:35 GMT

History is replete with examples of those getting what they deserve... as well as those who do not. Living in a land where so many Nazis fled is proof enough. One of the main organizers of the ‘final solution,’ Adolf Eichman was kidnapped from a well-to-do neighborhood and shipped to Israel for trial. Meanwhile the evil doctor Mengele, who at one point lived up the road in Buenos Aires, enjoyed a long life traveling around the world, taking ski holidays and infamously never once felt repentant. So... what gives? Doesn’t really seem fair, does it? It begs the question, does Karma exist? Well, the ancients would have most definitely said yes. Not only did they feel consequences would follow actions, they deified it. Nemesis was the goddess of retribution, following acts of hubris with the certainty of the sun rising... the only catch is that it might not be in one’s lifetime. Indeed, they felt the son can suffer for his father’s sins... as anyone who has heard the tales of Agamemnon or Oedipus can attest to. Like the Inuits and their multiple words for snow, the concept was so deeply ingrained in ancient Greek culture and mythology that there were many revenge ‘gods’. There was also Até, a more unpredictable figure, not necessarily personified, a rash, chaotic, response. Até was a chain reaction, a mechanism in which evil succeeds evil. The most famous example is no doubt in Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar,” when Mark Antony addresses the body of Caesar and predicts civil war:

“And Caesar’s spirit ranging for revenge, With Até by his side, come hot from hell, Shall in these confines, with a monarch’s voice, Cry havoc, and let slip the dogs of war…”

[caption id="attachment_31089" align="aligncenter" width="440"] "Marc Antony's Oration at Caesar's Funeral" as depicted by George Edward Robertson[/caption] But just because the ancient Greeks and Romans believed in karma, with Nemesis and Até ready to dish just desserts, doesn’t mean it always happened that way. Like our more modern evildoers, the ancient world is filled with unpunished villains and underserved victims alike. So where does this lead us dear reader? Does Karma exist? Does what go around come around? Does this ancient concept translate to our modern age? And should we act as if it does? As always, you can write to me directly at anya@classicalwisdom.com or comment below.

Meditations on the Rise of Stoicism

Wed, 06 Jan 2021 09:37:42 GMT

Written by Alex Barrientos, Associate Editor, Classical Wisdom Stoicism, as a philosophy of life, has become increasingly popular amongst the general public. With practical lessons on how to control our temper, how to have good friendships, prioritizing what’s important, facing death, avoiding the pitfalls of consumer culture, and how to live the good life, it is no surprise that Stoicism would have much to offer those of us living in the 21st century. I myself have improved much in my life due to my readings of Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Though there is some excitement at this reemergence of Stoicism, there is room for concern as well. Excitement, because there is indeed much that the Stoics said that can and should be applied in our daily lives; concern, because perhaps behind this reemergence is the fact that people are feeling less and less in control of the world around them. In the political realm, for instance, the feeling that “my individual actions won’t make a difference anyways” is becoming more widespread, especially amongst youths who notoriously fail to turn out to vote as it is. [caption id="attachment_15456" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Bust of Marcus Aurelius[/caption] This feeling is, of course, a self-fulfilling prophecy: if you believe you can’t make a difference anyways, and so don’t do anything at all, you will, in fact, not make a difference… shocking! Whether all individual actions in the political realm really make a difference or not, and to what extent they make a difference is beside the point; it is not some well-reasoned, statistical analysis that leads people to feel this way, but the feeling of impotence itself. The result of this impotence regarding the external world tends to lead people inwards. This is where Stoicism comes in. They emphasized what they sometimes referred to as a retreat into the self. In other words, focus on what’s in your power and be indifferent toward what is not. All that is in our power are our thoughts and actions and, even in the case of being physically restrained, they argued, a free mind is never in chains. [caption id="attachment_15714" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Artistic impression of Epictetus, including his crutch[/caption] As Epictetus put it in the opening lines of his Enchiridion,

“Of all existing things some are in our power, and others are not in our power. In our power are thought, impulse, will to get and will to avoid, and, in a word, everything which is our own doing. Things not in our power include the body, property, reputation, office, an, in a word, everything which is not our own doing.”

This is, on the surface and for the most part, helpful advice for many people. In our modern world we do often get tossed about too much: bombarded by social media and television, concerned about having the latest technology, running to the stores to buy the latest fashion. These are all things which the Stoics thought cause us much inner tumult and which we should be far less concerned with. Their main concern was with living a tranquil and virtuous life, and they saw focusing too much on external things as inherently opposed to tranquility and virtue. Here are just several examples of some of the advice the Stoics had to offer:

“What disturbs men’s minds is not events but their judgments on events… And so when we are hindered, or disturbed, or distressed, let us never lay the blame on others, but on ourselves, that is, on our own judgments.” Epictetus, Enchiridion, 5 “Ask not that events should happen as you will, but let your will be that events should happen as they do, and you shall have peace.” Enchiridion, 8

[caption id="attachment_15724" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Artistic impression of Epictetus[/caption]

“What difference does it make how many masters a man has? Slavery is only one, and yet the person who refuses to let the thought of it affect him is a free man no matter how great the swarm of masters around him.” – Seneca, Letter XXVIII, Letters from a Stoic “…how pleasant it is to ask for nothing, how splendid it is to be complete and be independent of fortune.” Letter XV “Everything hangs on one’s thinking” Letter LXXVIII “A man is as unhappy as he has convinced himself.” Letter LXXVIII “Remove the judgment, and you have removed the thought ‘I am hurt’: remove the thought ‘I am hurt’, and the hurt itself is removed.” Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, Book 4:7 “Withdraw into yourself. It is in the nature of the rational directing mind to be self-content with acting rightly and the calm it thereby enjoys.” Book 7:28 “If your distress has some external cause, it is not thing itself that troubles you, but your own judgment of it – and you can erase this immediately.” Book 8:47 “That all is as thinking makes it so – and you control your thinking. So remove your judgements whenever you wish and then there is calm…” Book 12:22

As we can see from these passages, much of what the Stoics had to say was often deeply inspiring and memorable. They are the type of sayings that you keep with you throughout your life. But the underlying assumption the Stoics made—their stark distinction between what is and is not in our power—can, and often does, lead people to apathy and seems in some cases to provide an excuse for those who feel they have no obligation to be concerned with the state of society or political matters. [caption id="attachment_13108" align="aligncenter" width="550"] The Death of Seneca by Domínguez Sánchez, Manuel[/caption] Furthermore, and this is the heart of the concern, in a political climate where people feel helpless and powerless as it is, Stoicism becomes a philosophical justification for inaction and retreating into the self. Stoicism seems to reveal itself as a practical philosophy when it is no longer practical or no longer feels practical to change the things around us. Striving to change the things we can no longer accept gives way to accepting the things we cannot change. But what we can and cannot change, what depends and what does not depend on us, and what is and is not in our control are difficult lines to draw. The Stoics, Simone de Beauvoir thought, were at least right in acknowledging that we are not oppressed by things. As she wrote,

"[M]an is never oppressed by things; in any case, unless he is a naïve child who hits stones or a mad prince who orders the sea to be thrashed, he does not rebel against things, but only against other men."

[caption id="attachment_16523" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Simone de Beauvoir, 1946 (Photograph: Henri Cartier-Bresson)[/caption] She continues,

"Certainly, a material obstacle may cruelly stand in the way of an undertaking: floods, earthquakes, grasshoppers, epidemics and plague are scourges; but here we have one of the truths of Stoicism: a man must assume even these misfortunes, and since he must never resign himself in favor of anything, no destruction of a thing will ever be a radical ruin for him, even his death is not an evil since he is man only insofar as he is mortal: he must assume it as the natural limit of his life, as the risk implied by every step.”

Indeed, this is one of Stoicism’s greatest strengths. Some of the most beautiful and useful passages the Stoics have to offer are on accepting the natural limits of life and the things that are out of our control. Yet, if we have established that the natural world and the limits set on us by nature do not oppress us, and furthermore that we must learn to accept these events and limitations rather than thrash the sea, what is it, then, that we should concern ourselves with? What can, in fact, oppress us and deserve to be given our attention, maybe even our resentment and hatred? “Only man can be an enemy for man,” de Beauvoir writes,

“It is here that the Stoic distinction between ‘things which do not depend on us’ and those which ‘depend on us’ proves to be insufficient: for ‘we’ is legion and not an individual; each one depends upon others, and what happens to me by means of others depends upon me as regards its meaning; one does not submit to a war or an occupation as he does to an earthquake: he must take sides for or against, and the foreign wills thereby become allied or hostile. It is this interdependence which explains why oppression is possible and why it is hateful.”

[caption id="attachment_16525" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Second thoughts … Simone de Beauvoir at home in 1957.
Photograph: Jack Nisberg/Sipa Press/Rex Features[/caption] In other words, our interdependence on others interferes with any Stoical distinction between things that do and do not depend us; in our relations with others, all depend on us and we depend on all. Oppression by our fellow human beings is not some natural order of the world that we must assent to; the tyrant who rides into town declaring himself ruler is not akin to a flood or an earthquake, and thus need not be accepted as such. Hegel also had a critique of Stoicism which gets even more at the heart of my concern. As noted so far, the Stoics praised an inward freedom, a retreat into the realm of thought and individual action. Herbert Marcuse, quoting Hegel, explains that, “‘The essence of this [Stoic] consciousness is to be free, on the throne as well as in fetters, throughout all the dependence that attaches to individual existence…’ Man is thus free because he ‘persistently withdraws from the movement of existence, from activity as well as endurance, into the mere essentiality of thought.’” As Marcuse explains, Hegel did not view Stoic freedom as real freedom, but rather as “the counterpart of ‘a time of universal fear and bondage.'” This analysis is important, and can help partially explain the reemergence of stoicism. It is no coincidence, Hegel would argue, that as wealth, and thus power, have become concentrated into fewer and fewer hands, many have turned to a philosophy that encourages retreat from the external world. [caption id="attachment_16526" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Portrait by Jakob Schlesinger, 1831[/caption] Be indifferent to that which is indifferent; only your own thoughts and actions are within your control, therefore that is all you should concern yourself with; accept all that happens to you since it is not under your control. What philosophy conforms more perfectly to the feeling of impotence in modern democratic societies? What surprise, then, that it should become so popular. We cannot entirely blame this failure entirely on the Stoics themselves, since all philosophical thought is situated within a certain time and place. And though it is a rather unfair criticism to accuse Stoicism of leading to political apathy (considering that many of the Stoics themselves, notably Marcus Aurelius and Seneca, lived very political lives), encouraging people to only focus on what is under their control—defining that as being simply our own thoughts and actions—can have an apathetic effect. What is and is not in our control is blurrier today than it was for those living under the aristocracies, oligarchies, dictatorships, and slave societies of ancient Rome and Greece. This aside, as I mentioned above, some of the finest lessons and teachings undoubtedly can be found amongst the writings of Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus. I myself have been profoundly impacted by their words. But we are not without justification to pause and wonder: why now? Perhaps the rise of stoicism will be a positive thing. But perhaps Hegel is right, that it is also indicative that we are living in “a time of universal fear and bondage.”

What have we learned in 2020? And how do we plan for 2021?

Mon, 04 Jan 2021 15:53:45 GMT

I’m always a big fan of liminality. For those unfamiliar with the word, it is an anthropological term, coming from the Latin word līmen, meaning "a threshold”. The concept is easy enough to grasp; it’s that strange moment in between two boundaries, the transition between one stage and another. It’s a point of ritual, a rite of passage that is both poignant and ambiguous. It can include initiation into a group, like a wedding... or a transition in one’s life, such as achieving a puberty... or moving to a new location or situation. Of course, liminality can be found in the ancient world.... Whether over the literal threshold of the Delphic Oracle (of which today’s mailbag responses pertain to), the sacred acts of the numerous mystery cults, or interwoven again and again in the mythology. [caption id="attachment_16899" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Ruins of forecourt of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, where know thyself was once said to be inscribed[/caption] The epic tale of Cupid and Psyche, for instance, is a classic example of liminality in myth. Psyche, both too beautiful to be human and yet not quite a goddess, proves her very existence is liminal. Her marriage to Death in Apuleius' version makes her no longer a maiden, yet not quite a wife. Moreover, she resides between worlds... and then her transition to immortality to live with Cupid serves as a liminal rite of passage. She shifts from mortal to immortal, human to goddess, when Psyche drinks the ambrosia and seals her fate. The rite is completed and the tale ends with a joyous wedding and the birth of Cupid and Psyche's daughter... a rare example of a happily ever after Greek myth! [caption id="attachment_24198" align="aligncenter" width="724"]
Psyche and Amor, also known as Psyche Receiving Cupid's First Kiss (1798), by François Gérard: a symbolic butterfly hovers over Psyche in a moment of innocence poised before sexual awakening.[/caption] Liminality can also simply reflect the passage of time. The dawn and the dusk... birthdays.... New Year’s Eve. It is the latter one, which may be the most astounding of all... because no other liminal stage is felt by so many at the same time. Within one 24 hour period, literally billions mark the moment of one year becoming the next. Even in cultures that traditionally did not follow the Gregorian calendar now light up their buildings with fireworks in massive international cohesive effort. What do we do with this liminal moment? It is a time to reflect, to plan, to remember and to visualize. And so with this contemplative stream of thought, we ask this week’s mailbag question, dear reader: What have we learned in 2020? And how do we plan for 2021? Both as individuals and as a collective community... As always you can write me directly at anya@classicalwisdom.com or comment below. A quick word before we get into today’s responses, please note that those wishing to partake in the Essential Greeks 2021 program, the course will begin SUNDAY, January 17th. Our welcome webinar will commence at noon EST (eastern standard time, US). Also, we are offering the Early bird special for a few days more - so if you are interested, take advantage and get $100 off the total price! You can register for the Essential Greeks Here.

Achieving Your Goals: Advice from the Ancients

Fri, 01 Jan 2021 08:53:50 GMT

Written by Lydia Serrant, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

"If a thing is humanly possible, consider it within your reach" -Marcus Aurelius

In early April around 4,000 years ago, the Babylonians held civilization’s first-recorded New Year celebration.

To the ancient Babylonians, New Year’s resolutions and traditions were extrinsically motivated. During the 12-day new year festival, new kings were crowned, or loyalty was sworn to existing monarchs. Crops were sown and promises to the gods were made to repay debts and return borrowed items.

[caption id="attachment_30825" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Artist rendering of ancient Babylon[/caption]

In more recent times, New Year's resolutions have become more intrinsically motivated. This year, tens of millions of people will make promises of self-improvement or the achievement of particular goals.

Known as Telos (end, purpose, or goal) in ancient Greek, the ancients well understood the importance of goal-setting and achievement. According to the Greeks, Telos involved self-reflection, wherein one would ponder on their misgivings, and put in place a plan to improve their behavior or outlook on life. Some goals were fairly easy to achieve, such as being kinder to one's friends, whereas some goals could take a lifetime to achieve, such as finding one's purpose in life.

Modern-day resolutions tend to be more down to earth and usually concern matters of personal health and relationships. Weight loss, quitting smoking, drinking less alcohol, and better money management are among the most popular new years resolutions likely made this year. With an average of only 8% of people achieving their New Year’s goals, many will benefit from the following wise advice from the ancient philosophers:

Admit Your Own Ignorance

When starting something new, everyone is a beginner. No matter how old you are, or how many years you spent studying one subject or how expert you are in another, starting something new makes a student of all of us.

[caption id="attachment_11490" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Alcibiades being taught by Socrates (detail), by Marcello Bacciarelli c. 1776[/caption]

The only thing Socrates said that he knew was that he knew nothing. He approached every subject and philosophical quandary with the assumption that he knew nothing about it at all. According to Socrates, the realization of self-ignorance inspires empathy and encourages humility—and can even, paradoxically, deepen knowledge.

The recognition of ignorance also fosters the need to gather more information. So, whether you have resolved to learn a new language or new instrument, acknowledge in advance that you will make mistakes, and the best way to progress is to use those experiences to expand your knowledge.

Don’t Just Talk, Take Action

When it comes to self-improvement, Marcus Aurelius literally wrote the book.

Originally written as a personal journal and later published, Marcus Aurelius' book Meditations is full of practical advice for how to stick to your goals.

To Marcus, there is no point making a promise unless you intend to honor it. In other words, there no point setting a resolution unless you are going to immediately apply it in your life.

[caption id="attachment_17587" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Marcus Aurelius Distributing Bread to the People by Joseph-Marie Vien.[/caption]

Those who make resolutions to be kinder, more patient, or less angry should seek out books and other sources on emotional management and immediately put what they learn into practice. Simply wishing to avoid stress and anger is not a helpful approach, as stressful and anger-inducing situations will arise whether we are prepared for them or not.

Practicing what we learn regularly will make us more resilient and stronger in our resolution. Recognizing the opportunities that challenge gives us will help to better reach our goals.

Realize That You Are Capable of Change

Aristotle believed that character types can not be changed, but that people can change their character.

For example, Aristotle believes that the formation of one’s character development involves actions, words, and personality, each playing its part. He theorized that those who act unjust, will eventually become unjust. What we say and what do moves us closer or further away from the person we want to be, and negative actions and words can lead one to lead an unfulfilling life.

[caption id="attachment_3710" align="aligncenter" width="375"] Painting of Aristotle[/caption]

It has been argued that this meant Aristotle believed that people could not change, but he meant the opposite. Aristotle tells us that one’s character could be chosen in the sense that we have control over our behavior. He argued that if people choose to do or say only good things, their character will improve, and motivate them to do more good deeds in turn.

This does not mean that your character or habits can be changed overnight, but even the smallest and most simple of steps will move you closer to your goals, making them easier to achieve.

Goal setting for New Year’s is an ancient practice. Our ancestors recognized that the coming of a new year was an opportunity to wipe the slate clean and start anew. January, named after the Roman god Janus — who keeps one face turned to the past and one turned to the future — represents our desire to build for the future and make amends for past mistakes.

So, this year, why not take advantage of the clean slate to try something new? Or end a destructive habit? The ancients teach us that such endeavors may not be easy, but are certainly worthwhile. After all, we have 4,000 years' worth of New Year's Resolutions to look back on and learn from.

References:

https://www.authentic.com.au/blog/mindset/monumental-quotes-marcus-aurelius/

https://www.history.com/news/the-history-of-new-years-resolutions

https://www.livescience.com/42255-history-of-new-years-resolutions.html

http://www.socraticmethod.net/the_socratic_temperament.htm

Gianluca Di Muzio. “Aristotle on Improving One's Character.” Phronesis, vol. 45, no. 3, 2000, pp. 205–219. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4182646. Accessed 30 Dec. 2020.

https://mcolaw.wordpress.com/2016/12/30/a-new-years-resolution-the-ancient-greek-theologians-would-be-proud-of/

What You Should Know About Ancient Greek Language

Thu, 31 Dec 2020 11:09:31 GMT

Written by Paul Bates, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

The ancient Greek language is believed to have been in use between the 9th century BC and 6th century AD, which spans the Archaic period, Hellenistic period, and the Classical period in Greece. It was preceded by the Mycenaean Greek and replaced by Medieval Greek, which is the language of modern-day Greece.

Dialect

Ancient Greek contained many dialects, among them Doric, Attic, Ionic, Aeolic, and Arcadocypriot. These dialects were discovered in various ways, some presented in inscriptions while others were found in literature, such as history books. There is also a different dialect of the ancient Greek language called Homeric Greek. This dialect was believed use for entertainment.

Writing Method

From different artifacts discovered written in ancient Greek, there is evidence showing that the language was written from right to left, having adopted the modern Arabic and Hebrew form. However, over time, the language evolved, and the writers changed the format and started writing from left to right. Many plays and poems that were written using ancient Greek show these features.

For example, Greek plays such as the Iliad and the Odyssey were written from right to left and contain some of the longest Greek words in written literature. Not the longest, however. That can be found in the play Assemblywoman by Aristophanes. It contains the longest-known written word in ancient Greek literature, consisting of 171 letters.

[caption id="attachment_5217" align="aligncenter" width="350"] Illustration of Aristophanes[/caption]

Influence from English

In Greece, different words were influenced by the English language due to interaction between Greeks and English missionaries. For example, the word "glamour" in ancient Greek was derived from the English language. It was used to describe the Greek architecture that the English missionaries found fascinating. The English language is, however, much more influenced by the ancient Greek language. Numerous words — such as mathematics and biology — find their origin in Greek words.

Word Genders

All words in the ancient Greek language had one of three genders: feminine, masculine, or neutral. This was purposeful: in ancient Greece, there was a belief that all aspects of life took up three forms (Bakker, 2010). Therefore, the adoption of three genders meant that a word would take either the male, female, or neutral form.

Use of Vowels

The ancient Greek language became the first language to employ vowels in its literature (Silk, 2010). Before the invention of the ancient Greek language, other languages used consonants, which made them very challenging to understand. The introduction of vowels in the ancient Greek language thus affected other languages, which slowly also began to employ vowels. This led to the introduction of sounds, which is the starting point of many languages. In this way, developments in the Greek language helped start many languages still used today.

[caption id="attachment_30810" align="aligncenter" width="550"] A blackboard asks, "do you speak Greek?"[/caption]

Different punctuation

In ancient Greek, punctuation was used to differentiate it from other languages. For example, the semicolon in ancient Greek was used as a question mark. Additionally, using different punctuations for different meanings meant users could communicate secretly, without passing their literature on to anyone they did not intend to.

In conclusion, the ancient Greek language is seen by many researchers as the origin of modern Greek and instrumental in the development of many languages.

Paul Bates is a freelance history writer at TOK Paper Writing and College Essay Writing Service. He is also an online tutor and provides historical research as well as full-service editing at MLA Format Service.

References:

Bakker, E. J. (2010). A companion to the Ancient Greek language. John Wiley & Sons.

Silk, M. (2010). The language of Greek lyric poetry. A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language, 424-440.

Serpents in the Stars: The Hydra Constellation

Wed, 30 Dec 2020 08:14:51 GMT

Written by Danielle Alexander, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

In modern astronomy, this constellation is often divided into two or four parts. One is a female water snake called Hydra, the other, Hydrus. A smaller constellation located in the southern hemisphere, Hydrus is considered the male counterpart of this giant, sprawling star serpent.

At twenty-seven stars, this is the largest constellation in the sky, visible from almost anywhere around the world. Unfortunately, it lacks particularly bright stars, so can be difficult to spot. The brightest, an orange star named Alphard, meaning solitary in Arabic, is so named due to its seeming loneliness in the abyss.

The six stars that form the snake’s head are the constellation’s most distinctive feature. The head has a culmination on January 31^st, whereas the tail culmination occurs during April. Culmination is when the constellation, or in this instance part of the constellation, reaches the zenith of the celestial sphere’s rotation, appearing higher in the sky.

Greek Astronomy

[caption id="attachment_30762" align="aligncenter" width="550"] An artistic impression of Hydra with its surrounding asterisms. Image: Sidney Hall[/caption]

In case you haven’t noticed, humans have a curious fascination with the night sky. Some of the stories we “see” as constellations go all the way back to Mesopotamian times (1300-1000 BC), where sky-watching was a prestigious occupation.

Gradually, early astronomy developed a mythic component. Over time, different narratives evolved in response to changes in interests and values over the generations, reflected in patterns in the sky. These narratives likely experienced dramatic development during the transition from oral to written transmission, but to what is extent is unknown.

Today, the International Astronomical Union lists 88 official constellations, many of which date back to Ptolemy’s seminal work on astronomy, The Almagest (A.D 150).

Compared to the rest of the ancient world, the Greeks began investigating the stars rather late (Hesiod and Homer, 500 BC). As such, they incorporated a lot of astronomy from their eastern neighbors. The Greek astral mythos canon was solidified by Eratosthenes, in a work now lost to us.

Slithering Across the Sky

[caption id="attachment_30763" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Hydra photographed above the scenic lake of Llyn y Fan Fach in the Brecon Beacons Dark Sky Reserve in Wales, U.K. Image: Huw James Media[/caption]

Hydra was identified as far back as ancient Sumer, where it was named after the primordial salt-water dragon goddess, Tiamat. In the myth, Tiamat slaughters the inhabitants of Earth, her offspring with Abzu/Apsu, the primordial god of fresh water, after they had slain her beloved. As myth and time progressed, she was usurped by the storm god Marduk, who overthrew the queen to gain divine regency amongst the Mesopotamian pantheons.

The introduction of Marduck, Babylon’s supreme deity, reflected the increase of political power that Babylon had over the Sumerian and Akkadian states of Mesopotamia. In this way, the Mesopotamian myth of the serpent contains a simplified, mythologized history of the region.

The serpent also held importance in Egypt, where it was likened to the unfurling, curling nature of the Nile, signifying changes in zodiacal alignments and celestial events.

However, in ancient Greece, this constellation was the formidable Lernean Hydra, the second of the great Labors of Heracles. The story goes that Hercules was set against the Hydra, mythological monster with nine heads that oozed venomous substances from gaping jaws.

The offspring of Typhon and Echidne, reared by Hera, the Hydra was terrorizing the sacred and fertile region of Lerna, near Argos. On ancient Greek coins, the Hydra is stylized with seven heads to mimic the river Amymone, where it was said to have lived prior to invading the Lernean swamp. The problem of the multiple heads couldn’t be resolved by decapitation due to their fierce regrowth, sprouting two or three more heads from their bloody stumps.

Heracles, with the aid of Athena, tempted the Hydra out of hiding with flaming arrows and held his breath when it emerged. He then lopped off its heads, but they just grew back. The twisting tail sought to trip him as it gripped his ankles and he uselessly waved his club around. Hera, determined to see the young hero fail, sent a crab to pinch his feet. It was swiftly squished. This then became the astrological constellation of Cancer.

[caption id="attachment_30764" align="aligncenter" width="422"] Hercules and the Hydra[/caption]

The flailing and ever-increasing number of heads was becoming overwhelming for Heracles, who was saved by his charioteer, Iolaus. Iolaus heroically set fire to the grove in which the battle occurred and waved burning branches at the fresh stumps, cauterizing the wounds and preventing their regrowth. This also provided sufficient distraction for Heracles, who was able to access the golden head of the Hydra and remove it with a golden falchion (a type of sword), thus claiming victory over his second trial. He then dipped his arrows into the disemboweled body of the monster. However, his victory was short-lived as Eurystheus, who had set the trial, held that Hercules had cheated because he received assistance.

Lerna was known as the location where Dionysus had ventured to the Underworld, and so housed several divine shrines to the god, where secret nocturnal rites were performed. Additionally, the Mysteries of Demeter were celebrated there, in a shrine set at the locale where Hades took Persephone to the Underworld. It appears this location was a hotspot for traversing realms. Robert Graves has suggested that this classical mythology was a historical attempt to suppress the archaic fertility rituals of the Mysteries that took place there.

Crimes of Corvus

[caption id="attachment_30765" align="aligncenter" width="541"] Urania's Mirror, 1825[/caption]

Hydra actually has two constellations perched on its back: Crater, or Bowl, and Corvus, or Crow. This peculiar combination is associated with Apollo’s punishment of the Crow. The tale goes that the bird was sent by Apollo to retrieve water for a ritual libation. Unfortunately, some figs distracted his feathered friend while on the quest. The Crow waited several days for the figs to ripen in order to pluck the delicious snack from the tree and gobble them up, having forgotten his heaven-sent task.

Once his tummy was full, the Crow suddenly remembered – the water for the gods! In a bid to save his own feathers, he snatched a water-snake and brought it before Apollo, claiming it had consumed all the spring water. Apollo, seeing the ruse, cursed the Crow to suffer from thirst during the season of fig ripening. In order that the crime would not be forgotten, Apollo put the imagery into the heavens, with neither the Snake nor the Crow able to reach the bowl of water.

In some versions, the Crow returns with a bowl of water, albeit several days late, and the Snake was only placed amongst the stars to deter the Crow from the bowl. This is not the only story involving Apollo cursing the Crow, and it makes you wonder why he kept them in employment!

The ‘Bowl’ Constellation in Troy

[caption id="attachment_30766" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Image showing Hydra in the southern sky at around 9 pm ET, mid-latitudes, Northern Hemisphere. Credit: © Starry Night Software[/caption]

The Bowl, also known as the Crater, is a constellation in its own right and has mythological roots going back to Troy. While the city was ruled by Demophon, it was plagued with a … well, plague. Demophon, distraught by the epidemic, invoked Apollo, who had worked with Poseidon to construct Troy and so favored the city. In order to stop the plague, Apollo demanded a maiden of noble origin be sacrificed to the patron god of the cities every year.

Demophon devised a system in which all the noble women would be sacrificed except his own daughters. This worked for a while, until another noble family patriarch, Mastousios, refused to enter his daughter. The king, outraged, ordered that his daughter be sacrificed, without drawing lots.

Mastousios played the long game and did not seek immediate retribution against the king. He pretended to befriend him, and spent a year winning his favor. When it came to the sacrifice, he informed the king he had chosen a victim this year and organized the ceremony. The king, no doubt busy with royal affairs of state, sent his daughters ahead of him with a wave and a “I’ll meet you there.”

The vengeful noble Mastousious slaughtered the king’s daughters and mixed their blood into the wine that he presented to the King upon his arrival. Unsurprisingly, the plan came to a bad end when the King realized what had happened and threw Mastousious into the sea. This body of water retained the name, and the event was placed into the sky as a reminder against abusing power for one’s own benefit.

This tale does not bare much resemblance to the imagery presented in the stars. It appears to have been created to provide an origin for the harbor and sea name in the region, rather than being representative of the story around the constellation.

Conclusion

The serpent in the stars reflects the tales of love, betrayal, and political upheaval. The size of this constellation reflects the variations of mythos surrounding it, regardless of whether it is seen entirely as Hydra or divided into the crow and the crater. As the story of the bowl constellation in Troy demonstrates, some Greek tales almost seem forced into place. The serpentine motif is predominantly associated with the pre-Olympian pantheons and the rage of primordial Tiamat, yet it continues to dominate today by taking up the largest part of the night sky.

References:

Cornelius, G. (2005). The complete guide to the constellations. London: Duncan Baird.

Ératosthène, Hygin, Aratus and Hard, R. (2015). Constellation myths. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.110-114

Fontenrose, J. (1940). Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid. The American Journal of Philology, 61(4), 429-444. doi:10.2307/291381

Graves, R. (2012). The Greek myths. New York: Penguin Books.

Kirk, G. S. (1972). Greek Mythology: Some New Perspectives. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 92, pp.74-85

Liritzis, I., Bousoulegka, E., Nyquist, A., Castro, B., Alotaibi, F., & Drivaliari, A. (2017). New evidence from archaeoastronomy on Apollo oracles and Apollo-Asclepius related cult. Journal Of Cultural Heritage, 26, 129-143. doi: 10.1016/j.culher.2017.02.011

Schaefer, B. (2006). The Origin of the Greek Constellations. Scientific American, 295(5), pp.96-101.

Gift Giving in the Ancient World

Fri, 25 Dec 2020 08:26:20 GMT

Written by Lydia Serrant, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

All cultures have different rituals and expectations around gift giving. Differences in the nature and complexity of gift giving varies across cultures, but most share common origin in early hunter gatherer societies where gift giving was form of social bonding, a conduit for strong tribal connections, and sometimes even an act of survival.

Early humans gave gifts to attract a mate. The more a male could gift, the higher-status female he could attract, suggesting that gift giving has served as an evolutionary benefit as well as a social one.

Ancient Greece was no exception. The role of gift giving was paramount in order to maintain family ties, secure successful linage, societal infrastructure and manage political relations. This article attempts to explore some of the social and economic consequences of reciprocal gift giving in early Greek society.

[caption id="attachment_30499" align="aligncenter" width="550"] In an act of hospitality, Eurycleia washes the feet of Odysseus, disguised as a beggar[/caption]

The Evolution of Exchange in Archaic Greece 4000-6000 B.C

Gift giving in Archaic Greece was preferred over commodity exchange. Gift exchange between families, states, overseas powers and domestic aristocrats helped build long-term social relationships.

The Odyssey portrays the cultural form of gift giving, confirming that social and material gifts were repaid in the form of an exchange. The Greeks referred to this process as Xenia, a social rule whereby one must endeavor to give material and non-material gifts, such as hospitality and food, to a traveler or stranger. It was believed that doing so would put one in favor with the gods.

Politically speaking, Xenia was seen as a force for social good and helped to maintain stability within society. The practice encouraged guest-friend relationships through the medium of gift exchange. Relationships established under Xenia could be maintained over great distances, lengths of time and extend outwards beyond established social connections.

One important aspect of Xenia is that it allowed travelers to pass through otherwise hostile territory safely. Ancient Greek city-states did not promise visitors safety or shelter. Guest houses and inns were limited or non-existent, and those that existed could be too expensive for the casual traveller. In this way, Xenia allowed travelers to pass safely between states, provided someone was willing to accommodate their stay and provide food and shelter for the night. In exchange, travelers would leave a parting gift in thanks.

[caption id="attachment_30497" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Jupiter and Mercurius in the House of Philemon and Baucis, by the workshop of Rubens (1630–33): Zeus and Hermes put a village's hospitality to the test and the only ones to welcome them in were Baucis and Philemon, who were blessed while their neighbors were punished.[/caption]

On the part of the host, hospitality was also an opportunity to display wealth. The more one gave to others and charitable causes, the higher one’s status was considered to be. As demonstrated in a quote from The Odyssey:

“Come, friend, and give me something; for you seem to be no lowly man among the Greeks, but their most noble lord -- indeed a chief. So, you should offer more than others can -- I’d make you famous then in endless lands. I, too, was once a man of means; my house was rich; I often gave to vagabonds, whoever they might be, who came in need” (Homer, p. 351).

The reputations of both the host and traveler relied on this exchange. One could become well-known purely on the basis of the quality of their hospitality, or the value of the gift given in reciprocity.

Gift giving with the expectation of reciprocity is not a concept unique to the Greeks. Marcel Mauss, sociologist and anthropologist, argues that reciprocal exchange is universal to most societies for the purpose of demonstrating wealth, building relationships, and extending social connections.

Gifts to The Gods

Gifts to the gods were also a common form of exchange in the ancient world. One would gift items to temples or statues in exchange for divine blessings. It is at the temple where community gift giving and displays of personal or political wealth were demonstrated.

For example, in the mid-sixth century, Croesus King of Lydia sent large and expensive items as gifts to Apollo at Delphi, to both impress the Greeks and to gain favor with the oracle. Similar items were also found at the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus. It was noted that Croesus not only donated the pillars for the Temple, but also oxen statues made of gold.

The Decline of Reciprocal Gift Exchange and the Rise of Commodities Trading

Commodities trading existed in Ancient Greece. However, it was frowned upon, believed to fray the fabric of societal cohesion.

Gift giving in ancient Greece, as well as many other ancient societies, was a borderline ritualistic phenomenon. The inevitable time-lapse between gifts served to strengthen ties between individuals and groups. This helped such relationships endure.

[caption id="attachment_30498" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Hospitality scene, Greek vase[/caption]

Oddly enough, confusion also strengthened the relationship, as it was not always clear how one gift was valued next to another. Therefore, gift exchange would often go back and forth, with either side unsure of who was indebted to whom.

In comparison, in commodities exchange, the relationship terminates at the end of the transaction. The cost of the commodity is clearly established and paid for exactly and immediately. Commodities exchange therefore has no need of guest-friend relationships or social bonds of any sort.

By the late medieval period, Byzantium aristocrats began commodities trading alongside gift giving. At that point, gift giving was valued as stimulus for production.

Gendered Gift Giving

Since the time of Homer, gift exchange was considered central to relationships between men and women, an important component of maintaining ties between genders.

The nature of the gift was dependent on the gender of the gift giver and receiver. Durable gifts were considered masculine and soft and consumable gifts were regarded as feminine. Gifts were exchanged on many occasions, but the principal occasion was marriage, wherein the women herself was considered an object for exchange!

[caption id="attachment_30495" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Beazley, J.D, Woman and Draped Youth Leaning on Staff. Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painters, 2nd edition (Oxford, 1963)[/caption]

In other gift giving scenarios, the nature of the value and type of gift a man or woman would receive took into account the gendered roles of Greek archaic and Classical social roles, specifically the types of products each gender was expected to produce. Metals were considered an ideal gift for men and textiles and food for women.

The exchange of gifts between men and women is a familiar theme in Greek literature, from the precious cloth gifted to Agamemnon by his wife Klytemnestra to the poisoned robe given by Deianeira to Herakles. Many Greek tales of gift exchange come with a tragic warning, which historians believe reflected the social anxiety of gift giving between genders, classes and states.

References:

Morris, Ian. “Gift and Commodity in Archaic Greece.” Man, vol. 21, no. 1, 1986, pp. 1–17. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2802643. Accessed 11 Dec. 2020.

Panoff, Michel. “Marcel Mauss's ‘The Gift’ Revisited.” Man, vol. 5, no. 1, 1970, pp. 60–70. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2798804. Accessed 12 Dec. 2020.

https://reporter.rit.edu/features/history-and-complexities-gift-giving

https://minerva.union.edu/wareht/gkcultur/guide/8/web1.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croesus#Croesus'_votive_offerings_to_Delphi

https://thegiftcollective.com/blog/a-short-history-of-gift-giving

Lyons, Deborah. Westbrook, Ian ‘’Dangerous Gifts: Ideologies of Marriage and Exchange in Ancient Greece’’ Center For Hellenic Studies, Harvard University pp. 1-4

Christmas Traditions in the Ancient World

Wed, 23 Dec 2020 11:42:46 GMT

Written by Titus, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

Christmas is generally considered a Christian celebration, so it may surprise you that many of its traditions have roots in ancient civilizations.

Christmas carols

Perhaps the most similar thing to Christmas in the ancient world was the celebration of the birth of Dionysus, which took place on the 30^th of December in Greece. While carols are sung today for Christmas, they were also sung for the birth of Dionysus.

One of the greatest writers of antiquity, Homer, also composed carols for the occasion, illustrating the importance of the event in ancient Greek tradition. Sung in the homes of wealthy Greeks, the carols were associated with prosperity, joy, and peace.

'O Christmas tree, O Christmas tree...'

The history of the Christmas tree dates back to medieval Germany. At the time, Germany was still largely pagan and St. Boniface was a missionary there. Pagan religions had a vast reverence for trees. There was a large tree in central Germany which was so highly revered it was thought the world would end if it was cut down.

St. Boniface cut down the tree to discredit the pagan belief and help spread Christianity in the region. From that time on, trees were associated with Christianity in Germany, leading to the Christmas tree tradition we see today.

Santa Claus

Another important part of Christmas — Santa Claus — is also borrowed from ancient Greek tradition. The Greeks had their own Santa who rode on a chariot that turned into a sleigh while its horses would turn into flying horses. In modern Christmas traditions, Santa travels the world on a sleigh that is pulled by flying reindeers.

The Christmas season

Christianity owes its rapid spread partly thanks to the Roman Empire. The ancient superpower made it a state religion and helped it grow exponentially. For this reason, celebrations such as Christmas incorporated many ancient Roman traditions. Saturnalia is one example.

This Roman festival in honor of the god Saturn was held from the middle to late December. It is possible that the 25^th of December was chosen to mark Jesus’ birth to correspond with this popular ancient pagan festival.

Christmas has been around in one form or another throughout the ages. Even pagan Greece and Rome had their versions of Christmas. Modern Christmas is not an entirely new set of traditions — many of them are borrowed from antiquity. Like any great tradition, it has evolved through time.

How Can We Know Ourselves?

Mon, 21 Dec 2020 19:42:07 GMT

“Know Thyself” From the Greek γνῶθι σεαυτόν to the Latin nosce te ipsum or temet nosce.... You probably recognize the saying... Especially if you watched this weekend’s Classical Wisdom webinar on the Delphic Oracle. These two words have had a profound impact on history, philosophy and the development of wisdom itself. Arguably the most famous of the 147 maxims inscribed on the Temple of Apollo, “Know thyself” is one of the moral rules given by the Greek god Apollo's Oracle at Delphi, Pythia. They were attributed to Apollo, but this particular saying was also said to be conceived by the philosopher Thales or Phemonoe, a mythical Greek poet. [caption id="attachment_30443" align="aligncenter" width="585"] Temple of Apollo at Delphi, by Albert Tournaire[/caption] It could also just be an ancient proverb, its source lost to history’s ether. No matter its origins, the inscription influenced Socrates, Plato, Aeschylus... to name a few greats from the ancient world. The modern philosophers were also not immune; Hobbes, Pope, Rousseau, Emerson referenced the importance of knowing oneself. Even the “Pliny of the North” and father of Modern Taxonomy, Carl Linnaeus, published the first edition of Systema Naturae in which he described humans (Homo) with the simple phrase "Nosce te ipsum". [caption id="attachment_30450" align="aligncenter" width="342"] Detail from the 6th edition of Linnaeus' Systema Naturae (1748). "HOMO. Nosce te ipsum."
[/caption] Great! We are all agreed then - we should know ourselves. But that’s just where the difficulty begins. Founding father Benjamin Franklin, writing in his Poor Richard's Almanack, observed just how tricky it is to accomplish this task: "There are three Things extremely hard, Steel, a Diamond, and to know one's self." So, let us see if together we can make some headway on the topic... to take a moment during this chaotic season to be truly reflective and to think about one of the most important rules of the ancient world: How can we know ourselves? What can we do to accomplish this? Is this a Maxim for Modern life? As always, you can comment below or write me directly at anya@classicalwisdom.com Feature Image: Allegorical painting from the 17th century with text Nosce te ipsum

Hellenistic Greece: When the Greeks Ruled the World

Fri, 18 Dec 2020 09:43:55 GMT

Written by Ed Whalen, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

The ancient Greek world reached its apex in the Hellenistic era (323-146 BC). Dating from the death of Alexander to the rise of Rome, the period marked the decline of the city-state, the rise of empires, and great achievements in science, art and philosophy.

The Early Years of the Hellenistic Age

The death of Alexander the Great (323 BC) left his vast empire, which stretched from India to central Europe, in chaos. He left no heir, so the empire was partitioned between his generals and commanders. They were called the Diadochi (successors), and for some fifty years they fought each other for control of the Macedonian Empire. Antigonus nearly succeeded in uniting the empire but was defeated at the battle of Ipsus (301 BC), ending the Diadochi Wars.

Three large states arose out of the Diadochi Wars: in Asia, Seleucus established the Seleucid, in Egypt, Ptolemy ruled, and Macedonia and Greece were ruled by the Antigonids. These states fought each other constantly and were ruled by monarchs. Meanwhile, many Macedonians and Greeks settled in the new areas, populating the cities founded by Alexander.

[caption id="attachment_30331" align="aligncenter" width="550"] The Hellenistic World[/caption]

The Seleucid Empire experienced periods of prosperity and power, especially under Antiochus I and Antiochus III, but was constantly battling rebels and invaders. The Greeks in Bactria broke away from the Seleucids and established a great state in what is now Afghanistan and Central Asia.

The Ptolemaic Empire was beset by Egyptian mutinies and court-intrigue. The Ptolemies adopted many Egyptian religious practices but remained a separate caste from that of the native population.

Macedonia was relatively weak, and its hold over much of Greece was never absolute. However, despite wars and instability, the Hellenistic states managed to rule much of Alexander’s empire. Indeed, the Bactrian Greeks even expanded into India and created a powerful empire, something Alexander the Great failed to accomplish.

Greece in the Hellenistic Age

The old city-states of Greece, including great cities such as Athens, began to decline during the Hellenistic period. While Sparta remained independent, it became a political backwater. The city-states simply could not compete militarily with the successor states. However, some Greeks remained independent, forming political and military groups such as the Aetolian League.

[caption id="attachment_30332" align="aligncenter" width="550"] A mosaic of the Lighthouse of Alexandria (labeled Ο ΦΑΡΟϹ), Olbia, Libya c. 4th c. AD[/caption]

The Hellenistic World was very interconnected, and trade flourished. Hellenistic monarchs such as the Ptolemies supported trade by projects like the famous Lighthouse of Alexandria. This brought great prosperity to Greece in particular.

Technology and Farming in the Hellenistic Age

The exchange between the Greeks and other societies inspired many technological innovations. New architectural and shipbuilding techniques were developed. Scientific instruments such as water-clocks were invented. Heron of Alexandria developed the world’s first steam engine, known as the aeolipile. New agricultural practices were also pioneered, particularly in Ptolemaic Egypt.

[caption id="attachment_28467" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Heron of Alexandria's aeolipile[/caption]

The Hellenistic world encompassed a vast geographical area, allowing for a diverse exchange of products. For example, at this time the writing parchment papyrus became ubiquitous in the Greek world. Mathematics and science also flourished. Indeed, in Alexandria, scientists argued that the world was round and rotated around the sun, over 1500 years before Copernicus.

Cultural Achievements in the Hellenistic Age

While the Hellenistic world was politically divided, the region was unified culturally and very cosmopolitan. A Greek dialect known as Koine became the lingua franca of much of the known world. Sculpture and painting became more human-focused, a phenomenon that resurfaced later in the Renaissance. The period saw the creation of many artistic masterpieces, such as the famous statue Nike of Samothrace. Such works later greatly influenced Roman art.

[caption id="attachment_30333" align="aligncenter" width="550"] The Nike of Samothrace[/caption]

The era also signaled changes in religion. Mystery religions such as Orphism became popular. There was a great deal of religious syncretism, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt, as many of the Hellenistic monarchs were curious and open-minded. The Greeks in Bactria even became Buddhists, greatly influencing the development of classic Buddhist art.

Perhaps due to the turbulence of the era, many turned inward, focusing more on personal salvation and peace of mind. Some important philosophical schools also arose at this time. The Cynics believed that civilization was a fraud and people should live as close to nature as possible. The Stoics believed in self-control, arguing that a rational life brings peace of mind and is in accordance with divine law. Epicureans held that the meaning of life was to enjoy rational and moderate pleasure.

The Romans were deeply influenced by the Hellenistic culture. Many members of the Roman elite wrote and spoke Greek. Indeed, after 146 BC, a Graeco-Roman culture came to dominate the Mediterranean World.

The End of the Hellenistic Age

The rise of Rome was the death-knell of the Hellenistic era. The Seleucid Empire was in decline due to constant Parthian incursions. While Antiochus II the Great was able to restore the empire to its former glory, he threatened Roman influence in the Eastern Mediterranean. At the Battle of Magnesia, Antigonus was decisively defeated.

This was the beginning of the end of the Seleucid Empire. Within a few decades, Rome was appointing its kings and much of its territory was annexed by the Parthians. The Romans fought the Macedonians in Three Wars (214-148 BC). In 148 BC, the Romans triumphed and the kingdom of Alexander the Great became a vassal state of Rome. In the fourth and final Macedonian War, the Romans were again victorious. Corinth was sacked and this marked the start of Rome’s domination of Greece. By 146 BC, only the Greeks in Bactria and India retained power.

Conclusion

The Hellenistic Age was decisive. It saw the end of the city-state system and mainland Greece was politically marginalized. Hellenic civilization dominated, influencing peoples from the Western Mediterranean to India. The era saw stunning achievements in the arts, philosophy, and technology. Cosmopolitan societies arose — very reminiscent of the current age. While Rome ended the Hellenistic Age, they were also its heirs.

References:

Boardman, John The Oxford History of Greece & the Hellenistic World 2nd Edition Oxford University Press, 1988.

Archaic Age Greece: Foundation of Classical Civilization

Wed, 16 Dec 2020 09:21:52 GMT

Written by Ed Whalen, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

We are all familiar with the achievements of Classical Greece. The era produced great art, philosophies, and political systems that still influence us to this day.

However, the Classical period was born out of the Archaic period, dating from the 8^th century BC until the second Persian invasion (480 BC). This is the era when Greece emerged from the Dark Ages.

It was also a period that transformed Greece, laying the foundations for not only the Classical age but all of Graeco-Roman Civilization.

The End of the Dark Ages

The 8^th century BC saw several rapid socio-economic changes in Greece. International trade revived, and many Greek communities began to specialize in products for foreign markets. This, in turn, encouraged the development of a new economy based on money, and this new economy grew. At the same time, more arable land came under cultivation, and the population grew rapidly.

The era also marked important cultural changes, such as the introduction of a new alphabet based on the Phoenician model. This led to the development of written Greek literature based on the oral tradition. It was at this time that the Homeric epics were written down and Hesiod wrote his didactic poem, Works, and Days. Lyric poetry also emerged, with Sappho and Pindar leading the way.

In the 6^th century BC, poetry contests in honor of the god of wine led to the first dramatic performances in Athens. It was during the Archaic period that Greek literature began and in which some of its greatest works were produced.

[caption id="attachment_30190" align="aligncenter" width="500"] A scene from Euripides’ Bacchae, ancient Roman painting, House of Vettii, Pompeii[/caption]

Increased international trade led to greater cultural exchange, producing more realistic and naturalistic sculptures. The growing need for vessels to store food spurred advances in pottery, and this became a Greek art form. Decorated earthenware, often portraying mythic scenes, became extremely popular all over the Mediterranean. Also at this time the Greeks revived the Olympic Games, which continued uninterrupted for a millennium.

The Age of Colonization

Due to overpopulation, many Greeks were obliged to look for new lands. Colonists set out to look for new opportunities, and Greek outposts were soon established in the Black Sea area and as far as Spain. These communities maintained their cultural identity, and their settlements soon grew into towns and even cities. The Archaic period saw the expansion of the Greek world. Some colonies, such as Syracuse, went on to play a key role in the development of the Hellenic world.

[caption id="attachment_30191" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Greek trireme[/caption]

Military Reforms

The Archaic period saw changes in the way the Hellenes engaged in conflict. Growing prosperity ensured more soldiers could afford armor. The hoplite, or heavy infantryman, came to dominate the battlefield for centuries. The phalanx was developed. New naval technologies also came into play, producing the first triremes, or warships. These allowed the Hellenes to dominate much of the Mediterranean.

The Growth of Cities

One of the key developments of the Archaic period was urbanization. The Greek polis, literally “city,” came into being. In some places, such as Athens, the polis was the result of several communities coming together. The polis led to the development of the city-state. Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Sparta all developed as cities during the Archaic period.

Increasingly, the inhabitants of the new cities saw themselves as citizens of the polis, instead of identifying with a tribe or clan. This new urban lifestyle produced important cultural and social changes. To govern the new cities, constitutions and laws were developed. The Greeks developed the art of politics and the basic principles of law.

[caption id="attachment_26133" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Portrait of the poet and legislator Solon of Athens (circa 640-c. 588 BC). Painting by Merry-Joseph Blondel (1781-1853), 1828. Picardie Museum, Amiens, France (Photo by Leemage/Corbis via Getty Images)[/caption]

The Politics of the Archaic Age

While rural Greece was controlled by elites, in the cities — due to the breakdown of tribes and clans — classes emerged. This doesn’t mean that the rich, who were often members of the old aristocracy, didn’t try to dominate the polis. Many city-states, such as Corinth, were dominated by oligarchies that used their wealth and prestige to maintain power. The poor were oppressed, and some were even enslaved due to debts.

Meanwhile, the rising class of traders wanted a greater say in the government. This led to increasing social and political unrest. In Athens, Solon the lawgiver issued reforms aimed at diffusing tension by addressing inequality.

Not all Greek cities did likewise, opening the door for populists to come to power in many urban centers. Cypselus, for example, seized power in Corinth in 655 BC. These populists became tyrants in many Greek cities, including Athens. However, they were not tyrants in the modern sense — rather, they ruled by illegal and non-traditional means. Indeed, the Athenian tyrant Peisistratus did much to improve the city and was a patron of the arts in the 6^th century BC.

However, many became corrupt over time and the population became restive. Those who served as hoplites in the army wanted more power. This led to the growth of democratic ideas in many cities— ideas that would lead to the widespread adoption of democratic ideas in Athens and elsewhere in Greece in the 5^th century BC.

[caption id="attachment_27602" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Greece in the Archaic Age[/caption]

Power and Politics in the Archaic Age

The Archaic age saw the rise of the two powers that would dominate the Greek world. Athens became a serious military and naval power. Sparta fought three wars with the Messenian, who inhabited the southwestern Peloponnese, eventually dominating and enslaving them.

In order to maintain control over growing territory, Sparta developed a society based on military principals and became the greatest land power in the region. By 550 BC, it had dominated all of the Peloponnese. The Archaic period thus saw the emergence of these two powerful Greek city-states, whose rivalry and cooperation would determine the politics of the Hellenic world until the rise of Macedonia.

Conclusion

The Archaic period was crucial to the civilization of Greece. It was a time that saw the emergence of Hellenic literature and art. The growth of cities transformed the lives of people and led to the development of politics and the law. The Greek military saw innovation and expansion, and the Greeks colonized many parts of the Mediterranean. What they achieved in the Archaic Age laid the foundations not only for the glories and achievements of Classical Greece, but also that of the modern world.

References:

Grant, Michael (1988). The Rise of the Greeks. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Gargin, Michael (ed.) (2010) The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The 10 Best Books On Ancient Politics

Tue, 15 Dec 2020 22:57:23 GMT

Written by Frank Hamilton, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

Every student of political history recognizes the role of ancient Greek and Roman societies in shaping modern political thought.

Democracy was first developed in ancient Greece, while the Roman empire developed the political concept of a republic. Both political ideas are still important today.

As ancient Greece influenced Rome, ancient Greek and Roman political philosophy has influenced the political framework of several western societies even after a millennium.

Therefore, a look into the workings of ancient political structures is incomplete without proper attention given to the political setup of ancient Greek and Roman societies.

Aristotle’s Politics and Cicero’s De Republica can guide us in better understanding the political setup of both ancient empires.

While these two works are helpful, there are several other books that explain how ancient Greek and Roman societies functioned.

Thus, without further ado: here are the 10 best books about ancient politics.

1. Politics and Society In Ancient Greece, by Nicholas F. Jones

Nicholas F. Jones is a professor of Classics at the University of Pittsburgh. He has authored four books on ancient Greek political and social history.

In this book, Jones provides a concise summation of the best historical knowledge of ancient Greece. Since several modern democracies were inspired by ancient Greece, Politics and Society In Ancient Greece helps readers understand the complexity of Greek political life and how that may reflect in the modern political landscape.

2. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon

This book comprises six volumes covering the history of the Roman Empire from 98 CE TO 1590, including the Islamic and Mongolian conquests.

In it, Gibbon traces the history of Western civilization, from the peak of the Roman Empire to its fall. He offers a critical, fairly objective analysis of history, with the occasional moralization.

“History,” he writes in The History of the Decline And Fall of the Roman Empire, "is indeed, little more than the register of the crimes, follies, and misfortune of mankind.”

3. The Ancient City: A Study of the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome, by Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges

Published in the 19th century, this book remains French historian Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges’ most popular, and is based on texts of ancient poets and historians. In it, Fustel de Coulanges investigates the genesis of the institutions of Greek and Roman society.

He provides a fresh, accurate, and detailed picture of the religious, family, and civic life in the ancient world, covering, for example, Athens during the time of Pericles and Rome during the time of Cicero.

4. Democracy: A Life, by Paul Cartledge

Released in 2018, this is the most recently-published book on this list and in it, Paul Cartledge offers a detailed history of the ancient Greek political system.

The book also covers the disparities between ancient Greece and modern types of democracy, helping us form a better understanding of both.

Democracy: A Life traces the evolution of Greek politics — including how the political theory was invented — and the birth of democracy.

The book also traces the decline of Greek democratic institutions at the hand of the Macedonians, and ultimately the Romans.

5. Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic, by Tom Holland

Published in 2003 by Cambridge-educated author Tom Holland, Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic covers the end of the Roman republic and birth of the empire.

Rubicon refers to the river that Julius Caesar crossed with his army in 49BC before plunging the nation into civil war.

6. The Birth of Politics: Eight Greek and Roman Political Ideas and Why They Matter, by Melissa Lane

In this book, Melissa Lane traces the origin of political concepts, from Socrates to Cicero. The author shows how the following political ideas from the Greco-Roman world remain influential today. These ideas are:

Justice
Virtue
Constitution
Democracy
Citizenship
Cosmopolitanism
Republic
Sovereignty

The Birth of Politics provides a thoughtful and challenging discussion of traditional classical political ideas.

7. The Republic, by Plato

Plato’s work is the oldest published book on this list. Authored around 375 BC, it is written in Socratic dialogue. Considered one of the most influential philosophical and political works in history, Plato’s Republic attempts to define justice and the ideal community. The work also analyzes the merits and demerits of various forms of government.

8. Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (Ancient Culture & Society), by P.A. Brunt

This is an easy-to-read book about the Roman republic. It offers a good picture of Roman history from the early republic to the time of Augustus Caesar, but lacks good sourcing. It’s good for those seeking a quick overview of the Roman republic, but is not necessarily a work of scholarship.

9. Greece and Rome at War, by Peter Connolly

This a vividly descriptive book that offers an overview of twelve centuries of conflict spanning more than half a century, from 800 BC to 450 AD.

10. The Roman Revolution, by Ronald Syme

Published in 1939, this is a scholarly work about the final years of the Roman republic and Augustus Caesar’s creation of the Roman empire.

In Conclusion

The books on this list will provide readers with a deeper understanding of the workings of ancient political systems and how they have influenced modern political philosophy.

Frank Hamilton has been working as an editor at essay review service Writing Judge and an author at Best Writers Online. He is a professional writing expert in such topics as blogging, digital marketing and self-education. He also loves traveling and speaks Spanish, French, German and English.

Should We Keep Traditions?

Mon, 14 Dec 2020 20:35:34 GMT

“My father’s family were all German jews... my mother’s Russian. So, they are definitely both jewish! Ashkenazis...But we aren’t really that jewish.” A confused look from across the socially distanced picnic blankets -under an ironically decorative menorah at the German plaza here in Buenos Aires- prompted a further explanation. His pretty new blond wife chimed in, “yes, I tried to show my appreciation of the culture and made a Challah bread (a traditional jewish bread) for the family... the grandmother asked what it was!” Our Argentine friend confirmed, “We always celebrate rosh Hashanah (Jewish new Year), but not much else. In fact, this will be our first Hanukkah.” Indeed it was... I was surprised by how little he knew! He didn’t even know what the dreidel was... or how to light the Menorah. [caption id="attachment_30131" align="aligncenter" width="600"] The most famous preserved representation of the menorah of the Temple was depicted in a frieze on the Arch of Titus, commemorating his triumphal parade in Rome following the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE[/caption] But then again, should he? After all, what meaning does a candle lighting ceremony have in our modern world? For Hanukkah or any other tradition? The ancient world was filled with traditions, very different from the ones we carry on today. While they may have been sacrificing animals or jumping over bulls, we eat crackers and say it's someone’s body. Or perhaps most bizarrely.... move an elf on a shelf? At the end of the day, none of these traditions will live forever - though some have certainly lasted a long time. The Menorah, after all, was described in the bible... but how long will it last if the descendants don’t even recognize it? This brings us to this week’s mailbag question: Should we keep traditions? Who decides which ones? And why should we in the first place? As always, you can email me directly at anya@classicalwisdom.com or comment below.

The Caduceus: Magical Staff of Hermes

Fri, 11 Dec 2020 03:19:32 GMT

Written by Ed Whalen, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

Hermes was the messenger of the Olympian gods. Hermes, or Mercury, had a powerful staff known as the caduceus, which was considered a magical symbol of his inviolability. The staff became a very potent symbol in the ancient world. We are still familiar with it in the modern world, though we may not realize it.

Hermes

Hermes was one of the Olympian gods, believed to be the son of Zeus. Some sources claim that his true origin was chthonic - meaning “subterranean” - and that he had two aspects. Later, he was transformed into the messenger of the Olympian gods.

[caption id="attachment_30000" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Hermes[/caption]

Hermes would move quickly through the heaven and the earth with his famous winged sandals. He was also the guide of the dead into the afterlife. Because he was constantly crossing boundaries, he was seen as something of a trickster god. He was the patron god of thieves, travelers, merchants and heralds, among others.

A very important figure in mythology, Hermes was also the god of boundaries. A sculpture of him, known as a hermae would often stand at crossroads or at entrances. The Romans adopted many Greek gods including Hermes, whom they called Mercury.

Caduceus

By at least the 6^th century BC, Hermes was portrayed as having a staff, known as a caduceus. This was a symbol of peace and was meant to demonstrate that the herald Hermes was also an inviolable deity.

Originally, the caduceus was a rod, or simply an olive branch. These were entwined with garlands or ribbons. Later, these became serpents in the iconography of Hermes.

[caption id="attachment_30001" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Mercury's Caduceus, by Nicolas Flamel, Source: Fine Art America[/caption]

The caduceus was shown winged and entwined with two snakes. This was to symbolize the speed of the herald of the Olympians. The snake was highly symbolic in the ancient world, and may indicate the divinity of Hermes.

Many believe that the origin of the caduceus is either a symbol of an Indo-European god or possibly that of a Babylonian god.

According to Homer, the staff was a gift from Apollo to Hermes. The divine messenger had invented the lyre and Apollo was so enchanted by its music that he gifted him the staff.

[caption id="attachment_30002" align="aligncenter" width="336"] Caduceus[/caption]

It was known to the ancient Greeks as a Kērykeion and became a symbol of peace used by those involved in making peace, such as diplomats and messengers. The staff was also thought to have magical properties. If Hermes touched a person who was awake, the person would fall asleep. The herald of the gods was a powerful figure in his own right. It was widely believed that his staff could determine if a person died well, or had a terrible death, which was of extreme importance in the ancient world.

The Roman god Mercury also had a caduceus, also regarded as a symbol of peace or diplomacy. Hermes Trismegistus, an ancient Graeco-Egyptian author who wrote many hermetic texts associated with spells and magical powers, was also believed to use a caduceus.

The Symbolism of the Caduceus

Over time, the staff began to represent all the trades and professions associated with the gods Mercury and Hermes. It was also used to symbolize the planet Mercury in late antiquity. Hermes was believed to have invented coinage, so his staff was often used to symbolized commerce. Considered a great orator, Hermes and his caduceus became the symbol of orators.

[caption id="attachment_30003" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Messenger of the gods, Hermes had winged boots and grasps his staff (kerykeion) in his hand. He has a traveller's hat (petasos) and coat (chlamys). Attributed to the Tithonos Painter, ca. 480 - 470 B.C. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art[/caption]

Because of the association with Hermes Trismegistus, the caduceus became associated with magic and above all, with alchemy. In alchemical symbolism, the caduceus represents the elemental, or prime matter. The two snakes were thought to symbolize chaos. The two serpents are shown to be fighting, yet as they are wrap around the staff they are believed to be in equilibrium. To the medieval alchemist, this represented the reconciliation of two opposing qualities or elements, which was one of the aims of alchemy.

Modern Symbolism of the Staff of Hermes

The medical profession adopted the caduceus as its symbol, and it can often be seen in pharmacies. Why? Hermes was not associated with healing. However, his staff is similar to the one owned by the Greek god of healing and medicine, Asclepius.

[caption id="attachment_30005" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Statue of Asclepius[/caption]

The US Medical Corps also adopted the staff of Hermes, possibly also mistaking it with the staff of Asclepius. The widespread adoption of the caduceus was likely due to its similarity to the staff of Asclepius, which has only one serpent entwined around it.

Conclusion

The caduceus was a staff wielded by Hermes, the herald of the gods. It was later associated with the Roman god Mercury. The staff became the symbol of the god and his many associations and attributes. The symbol became associated with magic and alchemy and also became the symbol of Mercury in astrology. Later, it became the symbol of medical practitioners due to its similarities with the rod of the Greek god of healing.

Cimon of Athens: Terror of the Persians and Great Statesman

Wed, 09 Dec 2020 09:26:28 GMT

Written by Ed Whalen, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

Athens produced many outstanding individuals, and one of the most remarkable was Cimon. A leading political and military figures of his day, Cimon left an indelible mark on Athens and Greece.

Cimon’s Early Career

Cimon (510-451 BC) was the son of the great Athenian general Miltiades, who had defeated the Persians at Marathon. His mother was a Thracian princess. However, Miltiades fell into disgrace and died. Left the head of his household, Cimon found himself in debt and used his aristocratic connections to pay it off. He then launched a military and political career.

[caption id="attachment_29880" align="aligncenter" width="479"] Bust of Cimon (510 - 450 BC), Larnaca, Cyprus[/caption]

Cimon fought with great distinction at the Battle of Salamis (480 BC) and was elected one of the ten generals of Athens in 479. He was instrumental in the formation of the Delian League, which gave the Athens control over the Greek navy, side-lining the Spartans. He worked closely with the conservative politician Aristides. During his political career, Cimon was associated with the conservatives in Athens.

Cimon’s Victories

While the Persian invasion of Greece failed, the Persians were still a threat. Cimon led several naval expeditions which sought to beat the Persians back in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Athenian expelled Pausanias, a Spartan general suspected of having treasonable dealings with the Persian Emperor Xerxes, from Byzantium. Cimon drove the last of Xerxes’ forces from Thrace. He then attacked a nest of pirates and defeated them on the island of Scyros, which he took for Athens. He became very popular at home and was widely seen as the leader of the conservative party. His main rival was Pericles, the leader of the popular party.

[caption id="attachment_29881" align="aligncenter" width="550"] The Battle of Salamis, by Wilhelm von Kaulbach[/caption]

The Pinnacle of Cimon’s Career

In 466, Cimon was operating in the Eastern Mediterranean and commanded a fleet of 200 ships. At this time, the Greek cities in Asia Minor, supported by the Delian League, had thrown off the Persian yoke. A massive Persian army gathered at the mouth of the River Eurymedon in Pamphylia (in modern-day Turkey), aiming to retake the Greek cities in Asia Minor and once more threaten mainland Greece. A bold, aggressive commander, Cimon decided to attack the Persians first. He launched a surprise assault on the Persian ships, destroying their entire fleet. Yet many Persian sailors that landed on the beach joined the Persian forces deployed there. Cimon ordered marines to attack them, inflicting a decisive defeat.

[caption id="attachment_29882" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Greek Triremes, similar to the vessels commanded by Cimon[/caption]

Aftermath of the Battle of River Eurymedon

The battle was a great victory for Cimon, making him the Delian League master of the Eastern Mediterranean. He had beaten back the Persians to such an extent that it was to be nearly twenty years before they menaced the Greeks in the region.

However, Cimon did not press home his advantage. Some believe that he did not want to overextend his forces. It is also likely that many members of the Delian League had become restive, and one the island of Thasos had even revolted. Cimon may have felt unable to conduct any more offensive operations against Xerxes. For two years, he laid siege on Thasos. There were reports that he was bribed by the Macedonian king not to attack his territories, even though many Greeks suspected that he had collaborated with the Persians and had encouraged the Thasians. Pericles and the populists brought corruption charges against Cimon. He was acquitted, but his reputation suffered greatly.

Cimon and Sparta

Like many conservative politicians in Athens, Cimon was sympathetic to Sparta. In 462 AD, Sparta was shaken by a rebellion. The helots, or state-owned slaves, had established a fortress on Mount Ithome. Sparta sought the assistance of Athens and her other Greek allies. Cimon called for the Athenians to intervene on behalf of Sparta. He was granted a force of 4,000 hoplites and they marched on Spartan territories. However, Cimon’s attack on the rebels was a failure. The Spartans became suspicious of the Athens and ordered them to return to Attica. This was a humiliation for Cimon and upon his return to his home city, he was ostracized and eventually exiled.

[caption id="attachment_29884" align="aligncenter" width="448"] Pericles cartoon[/caption]

Cimon’s Later Career

The fall of Cimon transformed Athenian politics. Pericles and his allies were able to seize control of the government and they passed several democratic reforms. They also waged a war against the Spartans in the First Peloponnesian War. Cimon volunteered to fight as a common soldier and many of his followers died bravely in the battle against the Spartans. This convinced many in Athens to rescind his exile. Cimon worked tirelessly to reconcile the two most powerful Hellenic states. In 451, a peace treaty was signed by both sides and this ended the First Peloponnesian War. Cimon may have played a role in this, and indeed was given command of a large fleet at the end of the conflict. Later, Cimon laid siege to the city of Citium in Cyprus, during which he is believed to have died of a wound or illness.

Conclusion

Cimon played a crucial role in the rise to power of Athens and he was one of the architects of the Athenian Empire. He was a great naval commander, driving the Persians out of the Eastern Mediterranean. His pro-Spartan policies made him unpopular in Athens and politically speaking, he was out-maneuvered by Pericles. Cimon wanted Athens to ally with Sparta. If he had succeeded, this would have prevented the cataclysmic Athenian defeat in the Second Peloponnesian War and possibly even the rise of the Kingdom of Macedon.

References:

Holland, Tom (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Abacus.

Classical Greece: Golden Age and Time of War

Tue, 08 Dec 2020 10:25:19 GMT

Written by Ed Whalen, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

When we think about Ancient Greece, we most likely think of the Classical Age. Starting with the first Persian invasion and ending with the rise of Macedonia, this was the period in which Athens and Sparta vied for control of Greece. It was also a time of remarkable cultural and intellectual achievement.

The Socio-Economic Background of Classical Greece

The Classical Age saw the flourishing of the polis, or the city-state. At this time, the Hellenic world was largely separated by nascent city-states. These young city-states needed new institutions for governance, leading to the development of modern politics. Many of the city-states were democratic, but the old aristocracy was still influential.

[caption id="attachment_9934" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Illustration of Ancient Athens[/caption]

With Athens taking the lead, democratic institutions and the rule of law were developed. However, parts of the Greek world, such as Thebes, were still dominated by the elites. During the Classical Age, Greek ships dominated the trade of the Mediterranean and cities such as Corinth were great centers of manufacturing. Hellenic culture and political institutions spread all over the Greek world, and even influenced neighboring peoples such as the Etruscans and Celts.

War and the Rise and Fall of Empires

In 490 BC, the Athenians defeated the Persians. When Sparta refused to continue the war with Persia, Athens emerged as the leader of the Greek world. The Athenians became the leaders of the Delian League, which continued the war against the Persian commander Xerxes. This war drove the Persians back while at the same time increasing Athens’ power, particularly at sea.

The Athenians eventually turned their allies in the Delian League into their subjects, creating an informal empire. This led to a bitter rivalry with Sparta and its allies, paving the way for the First Peloponnesian War (460-425 BC). This ended in the so-called “Thirty Years Peace.” In Athens, Pericles was the de-facto ruler of the city, then at the height of its political power.

[caption id="attachment_9932" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Pericles Addressing the Crowd[/caption]

Tensions between Sparta and Athens exploded into the Second Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). Their respective allies became involved, convulsing the whole of the Hellenic world in war. Pericles urged the Athenians not to fight the Spartans on sea instead of on land.

This strategy worked, and the Peace of Nicias ended the first phase of the war in 418 BC. At this point, the Athenians were restless. Following the lead of Alcibiades, they agreed to invade the powerful Sicilian city-state of Syracuse. This was the turning point in the war. The Athenian expedition to Syracuse was a disaster.

Weakened, Athens was put on the defensive. Sparta and its allies were able to dominate but they could not defeat them due to the power of the Athenian navy. However, the Persians intervened, helped Sparta to build a navy and in 405 BC, they inflicted a devastating defeat on the Athenians at the Battle of Aegospotami.

[caption id="attachment_14303" align="aligncenter" width="312"] Marble statue of a helmed hoplite (5th century BC), possibly Leonidas (Archaeological Museum of Sparta, Greece)[/caption]

Sparta emerged as the victor and Athens came under the rule of some pro-Laconian tyrants. The Spartans dominated Greece for fifty years. Under the Spartans, Athens recovered some of its power. They briefly invaded the Persian Empire and achieved some minor victories.

However, Thebes and other Boeotian cities chaffed under the Spartan hegemony. Some Theban exiles even expelled a Spartan garrison from their city and went on to defeat the Spartans at Tegyra (375 BC) and at Leuctra (371 BC). These defeats ended the myth of Spartan invincibility, and signaled the end of their hegemony over Greece. The Thebans emerged as the most important force in Greece.

However, in 364 BC, the Thebans were defeated by Sparta and her Peloponnesian allies, leading to a follow-up battle in which the Thebans triumphed in a tactical victory. However, the Theban leaders were all killed, weakening their power. By 360 BC, Greece consisted of three major powers: Athens, Sparta and Thebes.

Rise of Macedon

Phillip II became king of Macedon, and immediately began turning it into a major Hellenic power. He used marriage alliances to cement his position in Greece. He also took advantage of the Greeks in-fighting, especially during the Third Sacred War. He soon became very powerful and at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Phillip II decisively defeated the Athenians, Thebes and their allies. After his death, his son Alexander the Great brutally repressed Thebes and destroyed it. This marked the end of the autonomy of the Greek city-states, who were to largely stay under the influence of Macedonian rulers, on and off until the arrival of the Romans.

Lands controlled by Macedon at the end of Philip’s reign in 336 BC

The Culture of Classical Greece

Classical Greece produced some of the greatest artistic works of all time, most of it in Athens. The Parthenon was built, and many remarkable sculptures were made in the city. There was innovation in the sciences, and disciplines as diverse as astronomy and urban-planning. Athenians and other Greeks placed a great emphasis on reason and logic, leading to new innovations in mathematics. It also led to the development of philosophy.

[caption id="attachment_8330" align="aligncenter" width="550"] The Parthenon at night, Athens. Andreas Kontokanis/ Flickr[/caption]

The Greek sophists taught rhetoric and were relativists. Socrates reacted against them by demonstrating that there were eternal truths, developing the “Socratic method” of reasoning. He is regarded as the founder of modern ethics. Plato was his pupil and in his dialogues, a new philosophy arose. He is regarded as the greatest philosopher of all time. Then came Aristotle, who developed highly influential theories in ethics and metaphysics. The Athenians also developed tragedy and comedy. The great tragedians Euripides, Sophocles and Aeschylus wrote their masterpieces in 5^th century BC.

Conclusion

Classical Greece was a turbulent time, beset by wars and the rise and fall of empires. It saw the defeat of the Persians and the rise of Athens, Sparta and Thebes. The rise of Macedon ended the era of the Greek city-state. What is most remarkable about the Classical Age was its cultural, artistic and intellectual achievements. Without this period, the modern world as we know it likely wouldn’t exist.

How do you handle SLANDER?

Mon, 07 Dec 2020 20:28:45 GMT

In the ancient Greek world, they cared about what others thought of them... really cared. In fact, there was a term for it: Kleos. Kleos is often translated to “renown”, or “glory”, but this interpretation misrepresents this essential and insightful term. Kleos is actually related to the word “to hear” and carries the implied meaning of “what others hear about you”. A Greek hero, such as Achilles or Odysseus, earns kleos through accomplishing great deeds... or rather on others talking about those great deeds. [caption id="attachment_1632" align="aligncenter" width="720"] Odysseus at the house of Alcinoos... telling his tales[/caption] The emphasis, you probably noticed, is on what people hear about you, rather than the actual act itself. This is a little strange to our modern ethical sensibilities...because your kleos -potentially- doesn’t have to have been honestly deserved. Indeed, the wily Odysseus often gets it by trickery or straight out lies! The second issue with the concept of kleos is equally frustrating. We don’t actually have any control over what people say or hear about us, which I think we may all agree is a bit unfair... How can we be defined by what we can not control? Perhaps those ‘others’ may be talking us up, regaling folks with our fantastic tales and praising our positive attributes... or perhaps not. What, then, can we do with our reputation? This is something the ancients discussed at length, especially the Stoics. The Greek philosopher Epictetus confirmed that, “Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in one word, whatever are not our own actions.” [caption id="attachment_12377" align="aligncenter" width="169"] Epictetus - the slave stoic philosopher... [/caption] Meanwhile Marcus Aurelius laments in his diary, The Mediations, “Now they see you as a beast, a monkey. But in a week they’ll think you’re a god.” But dealing with slander or bad gossip doesn’t just happen to philosopher-kings or philosopher-slaves... even the humble workings of Classical Wisdom isn’t immune to a bit of libel now and then. Indeed, just the other day your editor saw a blog by one of our previous guests accusing us of having some sort of “extreme agenda” because our recent Symposium featured a diversity of ideas. Some even came from a different political background! We aren’t sure what elaborately erroneous mental obstacles they had to jump through to arrive at such an unsustained opinion... but the end result is still slander. It’s hard to read something untrue... and it's also hard to know how to respond. Sadly, we also know we aren’t alone, that at one point or another, we will all suffer this misfortune. And so, with that in mind, we ask your advice and opinion, dear reader, as this week’s question: How do you handle Slander? What can we do with bad gossip? Is there a way to improve our Kleos? As always you can comment below or write me directly at anya@classicalwisdom.com.

How Well Do You Listen? Plutarch and His Letter on Listening

Fri, 04 Dec 2020 08:50:07 GMT

Written by Lydia Serrant, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

Plutarch (AD46 – after AD 119) was a Platonic philosopher, essayist, biographer, magistrate, and a priest at the Temple of Apollo later in his life.

Plutarch was known for his involvement in all matters of society, taking on even the humblest of tasks. However, he is best remembered today for Parallel Lives, a series of biographies that followed prestigious Greeks and Romans, and Moralia a collection of essays, letters, and speeches that summarized his life's work, beliefs, and teachings.

Moralia translated as ‘’Morals’’ or ‘’Matters concerning customs and mores’’ and consists of 78 essays and speeches. From questioning fate to the nature of music, Moralia sheds light on ancient Greek life and offers some of the deepest and most timeless wisdom.

[caption id="attachment_29824" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Plutarch etching by Edward Gooch, source: Hulton Archive[/caption]

Plutarch’s letter on listening was first delivered as a formal lecture and was later converted into a letter to his young friend Nicander, who was about to embark on the study of Philosophy.

While the letter is written to a youth about to enter a period of intense study, it contains lessons from which we could all benefit.

Plutarch’s descriptions of different kinds of listeners are as relevant today as they were then. The lazy listener, the scornful listener, those who listen with excitement, and the over-confident listener are just a handful of listening types he discusses.

Plutarch’s Listeners

[caption id="attachment_29825" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Listening to Lectures (De auditu), in Plutarch, Moralia, Vol. I, Loeb Classical Library No. 197 (1927)[/caption]

The Selective Listener

Plutarch describes the selective listener as someone who is very good at listening – to what they want to hear.

This refers to the tendency to be most interested in hearing about topics that we find exciting and interesting, and how much easier it is to listen to long speeches from great orators or those we admire.

While most of us are guilty of this – no doubt there is great pleasure in listening to topics that one most enjoys – Plutarch warns that only listening to advice and opinions that are pleasing to the ear may mean we miss other important or useful information. Much good can be hidden away in ‘boring’ lectures or speeches from those we deem less interesting or desirable.

The Disapproving Listener

Most people will have listened to opinions that conflict with our values and meet with our disapproval. While there’s nothing wrong with disagreement, Plutarch encourages us to always keep an open mind. Most importantly, he urges us to listen to the speaker in their entirety first, without judgment.

Judgment or disapproval, Plutarch argues, is in itself a distraction of the mind. Those who attend speeches already in a state of disapproval are distracted, often comparing their own intelligence with that of the speaker, and/or observing others in the audience for signs of admiration and approval. In the process, much information is missed and the listener comes away less informed.

Disapproving listeners are at risk of distorting the information conveyed, rendering the whole experience useless.

Plutarch points out that when we have already decided we are against something, we’re likely to recall only what we consider to be the negative points. Great learning, he says, arises when we ponder and reflect on opinions that are opposite to our own.

The Over-Confident Listener

"In praising a speaker, we must be generous, but in believing his words cautious" - Plutarch

"Don’t believe everything you hear" is an adage as old as time. There are certain speakers we confide in due to their achievements, status or because they have previously given honest and useful advice. In that situation it becomes easier just to believe what you hear without a second thought and leave critical thinking at the door.

Plutarch advises us that no matter how much we admire the speaker, or how dazzling and entertaining the performance is, we must be a 'heartless critic' when evaluating the quality of the information we are receiving.

Plutarch did not believe that any speaker should be met with hostility, but warns us to be careful not to be swept away by the current. Just because someone may have useful information the first time, does not automatically qualify them to give good advice the second time. All information should be approached with a clear and critical mind, no matter who says it.

[caption id="attachment_29826" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Aristotle teaches young Alexander by Charles Laplante (1837–1903)[/caption]

Listening as a Collaborative Process

One of the core lessons from Plutarch’s essay on listening is that the learning process does not solely rely on the speaker or educator. He continuously reminds us that responsibility also rests on the shoulders of the listener. Learning and informing requires the active participation of both parties.

Thus the listener would do well to reflect on the quality of their listening, be mindful of personal flaws, approach all information with caution, and not be afraid to ask questions.

Quality listening does not mean that the listener must be quiet, Plutarch adds. Questions are an important part of the listening process and should always be welcome, so long as they are related to the topic.

Plutarch believed that the major obstacle in learning from others is one’s own shortcomings and insecurities. To remedy this, proper behavior in all educational settings must be observed so that the information can be adequately understood and assessed without the interference of personal preferences.

Whether we tend to drift off during boring lectures or immediately dismiss speakers we dislike, as listeners we are active participants in the cultivation of ideas. Identifying barriers to our listening and learning, especially those we impose upon ourselves, is a crucial part of personal development and self-improvement.

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralia

https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plutarch-moralia_listening_lectures/1927/pb_LCL197.201.xml

https://www.e-ostadelahi.com/eoe-en/the-art-of-listening/

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/De_auditu*.html

http://philosophycourse.info/plutarchsite/plutarch-listening.html

The Influence of Ancient Politics on Modern Political Systems

Wed, 02 Dec 2020 09:31:04 GMT

Written by Michael C. Anderson, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom

Most people believe ancient political systems have had a minimal effect on politics of the modern and postmodern world. The common belief is that the ancient world was largely barbarian with human rights virtually non-existent, so history from that time must be discounted.

Is this a correct assumption, or is there something can we learn about politics from antiquity?

The earliest Western civilizations were theocratic, but that model became obsolete with the advent of warfare. Winning in battle required military leadership and the power generated by a military leader’s success led to the evolution of kingship as the center of civil power in the state.

The next step in the evolution of government was the monarchy, which bolted hereditary authority onto the kingship model. Monarchies were the most common form of government before the Enlightenment. They survived because the authoritarian state could manage the society efficiently and, at the same time, protect its status.

In the midst of the monarchies permeating the ancient world, stood two models that would foreshadow modern politics: the Greek Democracy and the Roman Republic. These governments were true innovations in the application of liberty and human rights.

[caption id="attachment_29754" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Athens, Greece[/caption]

The mountains of Greece were an opportune setting for democracy. They divided the Greek landscape into small spaces which acted as incubators for the development of rights-based political systems. After the Mycenean civilization ended, the Greek peninsula descended into a dark age period, where political and social advancement came to a halt. Then slowly, small communities, governed by the people, began to develop. These communities blocked attempts by the wealthy to gain power, keeping control in public hands.

The Polis evolved to became the standard form of government across Greece after 700 BC. Each Polis developed its own characteristics, but all featured the institutions of democracy. In time, Athens became the most famous of the Poleis, because of its size and influence over the Greek peninsula. Athens developed its final democratic form after periods of tyrants and a flirtation with republicanism under Solon. Its high point occurred during the so called “Golden Age,” in the fifth century BC, when Pericles was its leader.

The Golden Age was also the beginning of the end for Athens, because she would soon be defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. The structure of the Polis had weakened and the advent of the sophists ushered in a new focus on the individual, replacing the cultural unity that had existed previously. It was only 60 years after the Peloponnesian war that Philip of Macedonia (father of Alexander) subdued the Greek peninsula and the Polis passed out of existence.

[caption id="attachment_29753" align="aligncenter" width="550"] The Roman Forum[/caption]

The story of Rome was vastly different. Rome began as a hilltop community founded near a ford in the Tiber River, in a part of Italy known as Latium. The early tribes of Rome were farmers, married to the land.

Rome was far from the sea, and its people had no history of sea trade, so land was its most valuable asset. Early Rome was influenced by the nearby Etruscan civilization. Its customs and government structure were readily adopted by the Romans. Two of the early kings of Rome were Etruscans.

Rome could not tolerate a monarchy. It threw off the last of the kings in 509 BC and became a republic. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica, or “thing of the people.” This thing of the Roman people was the rights they obtained through the people’s assembly. The republic featured an executive branch consisting of elected magistrates, led by a pair of consuls. The legislative branch consisted of the Senate and the people’s assembly. The assembly could pass laws but not propose them. The Senate could propose laws but not vote on them.

[caption id="attachment_29756" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Representation of the Roman senate from a 19th-century fresco in Palazzo Madama, Rome, house of the Italian Senate[/caption]

In the early days of the republic, Rome was dominated by the wealthy patrician class. Descendants of the three original Roman tribes, the patricians, controlled money and power in the republic. The Plebians had no rights in the beginning, but through organized efforts, they won for themselves an expansion of their rights.

They fought for executive branch representation, so the college of tribunes was created. They demanded written laws, so the twelve tables were posted in the Forum. They demanded access to all elected offices and this was also granted by the Senate over time. What made the Roman republic work was the willingness of the Senate to extend rights to all citizens. That reality prevented instability and allowed Rome to prosper.

But the republic did not survive. After 400 years, it began to crumble because of mistakes by the Senate, inefficient government, and territorial expansion, which required a large army. Until the end of the second century BC, Rome had a citizen army; farmers put down their implements and went to war.

In 107 BC, Gaius Marius, the leading general in the republic, created a professional army. This caused the soldiers to shift their loyalty from the Senate to their commander. Now any general, with a lust for power, could bend the army to his will and overthrow the government. That fear became a reality when Julius Caesar made himself permanent dictator, leading to the collapse of the republic.

[caption id="attachment_29755" align="aligncenter" width="336"] Sack of Rome by the Visigoths, by J.N. Sylvestre, 1890, Musée Paul Valéry[/caption]

The founding fathers of the United States knew the stories of Athens and Rome. Most could speak Latin and Greek, and they had read the history of antiquity in the original language. When it came time to create the American Constitution, they thought long and hard about the design of their new government. The United States would be the first “new” nation in the last thousand years of Western civilization, but what form should its government take?

The founders looked to the models of Greece and Rome as templates. In a short time, the Greek model was rejected. The polis was small enough so that citizens could attend meetings of the assembly and vote. This was not possible in a territory as large as the thirteen colonies. The new government had to be built on representation; elected officials representing citizens.

The founders had the experience of the colonial governments to draw upon and they understood the British Constitution. They decided that adapting the Roman republic to America would be the most logical approach.

[caption id="attachment_29757" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Declaration of Independence, by John Trumbull, 1819[/caption]

During the Constitutional Convention, the design of each branch of government was debated at length. There was early agreement on the Legislature which would contain an upper class of “elders” and a people’s assembly. There was a long negotiation about how the legislature should be constituted and how the representatives should be elected. A balance was reached by having two senators per state and an assembly determined by population distribution. Senators would be elected by the states and representatives directly by the people.

The executive branch was also subject of a lengthy debate. How would the chief magistrate (president) be elected and for how long? In the end, the delegates chose a presidential term of four years with the president elected by the states.

The founders looked at the new government as a republic of state republics. The states would share power with the Federal government with no overlap of jurisdictions. The founders believed that too much democracy was dangerous: that the public could be influenced to vote for a tyrant. Better to have the senior legislative chamber and the president elected by the states.

They also battled over the power of the Federal government. Some wanted it to be small, only functioning in areas inappropriate for states, like treaties with foreign governments. Others wanted it to have more power, thinking that professional politicians from the elite class would be the best managers of the country.

[caption id="attachment_29758" align="aligncenter" width="550"] The Founding Fathers[/caption]

America’s founders learned much from the ancient governments of Greece and Rome. They could read about the impact of citizens as direct participants in government. They had the luxury of analyzing systems that failed so they could avoid those same problems.

The debate about the structure of the American government has continued from the time of the Constitution until the present day. During the passage of time, the Federal government has grown exponentially, as the demand for its programs have increased, the courts have accommodated the shifting of the role of the Federal government to one as caretaker for society, and the American social culture has changed enormously. There is no playbook for how to adapt a political system to these types of changes, but we have history to guide for the direction we have to take now.

The Enlightenment helped us see that individual rights were important. That concept allowed democracies to take over the world as the default political system. The ancients taught us about the value of tradition as applied to changing societies. Tradition has to be used as a guide for moving forward, because too much change creates instability. The French Revolution warned us what can happen when all traditions are discarded.

Why is the study of ancient political systems important? The answer lies in the fact that all human societies are experiments in a public morality built by a consensus of the individual moralities of their citizens.

Man did not evolve to live among strangers; he evolved to live among small kinship groups. There are no human socio-psychological mechanisms to cope with living in societies, so each iteration becomes a unique model. The brilliance of the ancients is that their ideas can accommodate the postmodern society. The ancients understood human nature well enough to create models that are timeless and function at any time and place.